地方狀語(adverbial of location)之後的倒裝句

On the table was all the money we had lost. (Normal sentence: All the money we had lost was on the table.)

Round the corner came the knights. (Normal sentence: The knights came round the corner.)

if倒裝句

if clause有些情況用倒裝,例如:

1. Type 1

If you see Nigel, give him my regards.(Type 1)
Should you see Nigel, give him my regards.(Type 1)

2. Type 2

If you were Li Ka Shing, you would do the same thing.  (Type 2)
Were you Li Ka Shing, you would do the same thing.  (Type 2)
3. Type 3

If it hadn't been for your company, I would have felt lonely.  (Type 3)
Had it not been for your company, I would have felt lonely.  (Type 3)



注: Were it not/If it had not/Had it not been your company,可改寫成: But for your company.

形容詞後的詞組或子句

以下呢篇算係寫得比較pro, 也最整齊,講明形容詞後跟三種詞組:

i) prepositional phrase
ii) to-infinitive
iii) noun clauses

(http://www.linguisticsgirl.com/the-adjective-phrase-complement-in-english-grammar/)

Adjective phrase complements are words, phrases, and clauses that complete the meaning of an adjective or adjective phrase. Unlike adjective phrase modifiers that modify or describe an adjective or adjective phrase, adjective phrase complements complete the meaning of an adjective or adjective phrase. Three grammatical forms can function as adjective phrase complements. The three grammatical forms that can function as adjective phrase complements are:

Prepositional phrase
Verb phrase
Noun clause

Prepositional Phrases as Adjective Phrase Complements

The first grammatical form that can perform the grammatical function of adjective phrase complement is the prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase is defined as a preposition, which is traditionally defined as “a word or words that relates a noun, adjective, or verb to another noun, adjective, or verb,” directly followed by a prepositional complement in the form of a noun phrase, noun clause, verb phrase, or prepositional phrase. For example, the following italicized prepositional phrases function as adjective phrase complements:

My wife is worried about our financial situation.
This restaurant is famous for its burgers.
Many little girls are fond of playing with dolls.
His neighbor is guilty of breaking his French door window.
I was disappointed with the service.
He should be happy about my success.

Verb Phrases as Adjective Phrase Complements

The second grammatical form that can perform the grammatical function of adjective phrase complement is the verb phrase in the form of an infinitive. Verb phrases are defined as phrases that consist of a verb plus any modifiers, complements, particles, infinitive markers, or other verbs. An infinitive phrase consists of the p-word to functioning as an infinitive marker followed by the rest of the verb phrase. For example, the following italicized verb phrases function as adjective phrase complements:

We are eager to begin the school year.
He seemed pleased to meet you.
Some dogs are afraid to ride in cars.
Canadians are eligible to enter the giveaway.
I am content to read quietly all afternoon.
My coworker was nervous to bring up the problem during the meeting.

Noun Clauses as Adjective Phrase Complements

The third grammatical form that can perform the grammatical function of adjective phrase complement is the noun clause. A noun clause is defined as a dependent clause that is formed by a subordinating conjunction directly followed by a clause. The subordinating conjunctions that introduce noun clauses in English are that, Ø, if, whether, wh- words, and wh-ever words. For example, the following italicized noun clauses function as adjective phrase complements:

The student seemed genuinely sorry that he arrived late for class.
Chicken Little is worried that the sky is falling.
The committee is certain that you are not qualified for the position.
You are fortunate that you were not seriously injured.
Some patrons are shocked that you cannot borrow an unlimited number of books.
I am ashamed that you are my sister.

The three grammatical forms that can function as the adjective phrase complement in the English language are prepositional phrases, verb phrases, and noun clauses.

References

Brinton, Laurel J. & Donna M. Brinton. 2010. The linguistic structure of Modern English, 2nd edn. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Hopper, Paul J. 1999. A short course in grammar. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
Huddleston, Rodney. 1984. Introduction to the grammar of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

形容詞後跟 noun clause

連結以下兩篇.兩篇都講咗形容詞後跟

i)noun clause
ii)prepositional phrase

但反而無講可以跟to-infinitve

1. http://grammar.yourdictionary.com/parts-of-speech/adjectives/what-is-an-adjective-complement.html

What Is an Adjective Complement?

An adjective complement is a clause or phrase that modifies an adjective or adds to the meaning of the adjective. It is a noun clause or a prepositional phrase.

A noun clause is simply two or more words that act like a noun. It can be the subject of a sentence, an object of a verb or preposition, or they can complement a subject or adjective. It contains a subject and a verb and since it takes the place of a noun, it is a dependent clause and can not stand alone as a sentence.  Examples include: what you see, that he is happy, and where Sara went.

A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition and modifies nouns and verbs.  Examples include: “It came with the car”, “I need a ride to the bank”, “Trolls live under the bridge”, “We can eat dinner after the show”, and “Park the car next to the building.”

The adjective complement always follows the adjective it complements.

Commonly Used Adjective Complements

The best way to understand adjective complements is to show them in sentences.

Following are sentences with the adjective complement underlined. Remember, the adjective precedes the adjective complement.

She was hesitant to tell her parents.
The boss was anxious to promote sales.
Are you afraid of spiders?
We were shocked by the news.
I was delighted that she was chosen.
He is likely to be nominated.
The child was eager for Christmas to arrive.
I am curious what color it is.
It was wrong of her to go.
I am happy they got married.
We are all afraid that the storm will be severe.
For more examples, see Adjective Complement Examples.

Other Types of Complements

There are subject complements, object complements, and verb complements.

Subject Complement

Subject complements can be one or more words. They come after a linking verb, like: is, are, was, become, seem, grow, taste, smell, and feel. Examples are:

Whales are beautiful.
She is the star.
The food smells delicious.
The flowers grow taller each day.
I am on the roof.
Sometimes a verb can act as an adjective. An example is: “The crystals are not completely formed.” 

Object Complement

Object complements can also be one or more words. They follow a direct object and modify it. They will describe the object or rename it. It can be a noun, an adjective, or a group of words that act like a noun or adjective.

Examples are:

That should keep them happy.
I knight you Sir Peter.


Verb Complement

A verb complement is a phrase or clause, like the adjective complement. It acts as an object of a verb in either a direct or indirect way. It can use infinitives, like in “She wanted him to leave.”

Gerunds can be a part of the verb complement, as in “I considered leaving the Army.”

Noun clauses can be verb complements like: “He insisted that he pay the check.”

2.更多例子:http://examples.yourdictionary.com/adjective-complement-examples.html

An adjective complement is a phrase that modifies an adjective. It follows the adjective in the sentence and gives more information about the adjective. It is either a noun clause or a prepositional phrase.

Everyday Examples of Adjective Complements

You are amazing in gymnastics.
Mary is very bright in applied physics.
He is loving to his pets.
The company was anxious to sell all of last year’s stock.
I am addicted to ice cream.
Were you delighted to be chosen for the part?
Geoffrey is afraid of spiders and snakes.
I am sorry to hear the sad news about your grandfather.
Zach is eager for his birthday to arrive.
It was pointless to argue further.
Denise is undecided when it comes to choosing music for the party.
The coach was hesitant to tell the team about the injury.
She is likely to be nominated for a Golden Globe.
I am curious what my surprise will be.
The whole town was shocked by the extent of the devastation.
She was selfish not to share her good fortune with us.
Larry is kind to all his employees.
Are you excited to go to France next year?
She was startled at the sudden clap of thunder.
They were hesitant to let their daughter go there alone.
It was very obvious that this was the murder weapon.
The award winning star is difficult to get along with.
He is interested in designing video games.
I'm sure to have turned the water off before we left.
Mom was so happy they finally got married.
It was wrong of him to tell you the secret.
Lydia was glad to be living on her own.
I am so happy to hear your news about your promotion.
The teacher was delighted with her students’ progress.
She was fascinated with the cocoons and butterflies.
It is illegal to leave a car running in some states.
We are optimistic about the future of the planet.
The employees were surprised to see Golda get the promotion.
It is unbelievable that she got accepted at Princeton.
He was pleased that all his plants in the garden bore fruit.
My dog is very sad about me leaving him home alone. 

Complements in Quotes

"Imagination is the one weapon in the war against reality." - Jules de Gaultier
"Love is an exploding cigar we willingly smoke." - Lynda Barry
"Libel actions, when we look at them in perspective, are an ornament of a civilized society." - Henry Anatole Grunwald
“Most folks are as happy as they make up their minds to be. - Abraham Lincoln
 “I was probably more scared of my high school exams than I was of the Oscars. At the time you think it's everything and if you don't do well, your life's over. Opportunities are gone. So the more you do it, the less the fear is present.” - Hugh Jackman 
“I'm always rather nervous about how you talk about women who are active in politics, whether they want to be talked about as women or as politicians.” - John F. Kennedy 

Read more at http://examples.yourdictionary.com/adjective-complement-examples.html#PXjZR1OtUbjvbc3m.99

形容詞後面跟不定詞

甚麼形容詞後面跟不定詞?以下這篇很詳細(留意第6點不太關事,因那不定詞係屬於subject,不是呢篇要討論的adjective complement). 另外,留意adjective後有兩種complement:

i) to-infinitive
ii) noun clauses, e.g. that-clause

Main points

Adjectives used after link verbs are often followed by ‘to’-infinitive clauses or ‘that’-clauses.

Some adjectives are always followed by ‘to’-infinitive clauses.
You often use ‘to’-infinitive clauses or ‘that’-clauses after adjectives to express feelings or opinions.
You often use ‘to’-infinitive clauses after adjectives when the subject is impersonal ‘it’.

1. After link verbs, you often use adjectives that describe how someone feels about an action or situation. With some adjectives, you can add a ‘to’-infinitive clause or a ‘that’-clause to say what the action or situation is.

afraid
anxious
ashamed disappointed
frightened
glad happy
pleased
proud sad
surprised
unhappy

If the subject is the same in both clauses, you usually use a ‘to’-infinitive clause. If the subject is different, you must use a ‘that’-clause.

I was happy to see them again.

He was happy that they were coming to the party.

You often use a ‘to’-infinitive clause when talking about future time in relation to the main clause.

I am afraid to go home.

He was anxious to leave before it got dark.

You often use a ‘that’-clause when talking about present or past time in relation to the main clause.

He was anxious that the passport was missing.

They were afraid that I might have talked to the police.

2. You often use ‘sorry’ with a ‘that’-clause. Note that ‘that’ is often omitted.

I'm very sorry that I can't join you.

I'm sorry I'm so late.

3. Some adjectives are not usually used alone, but have a ‘to’-infinitive clause after them to say what action or situation the adjective relates to.

able
apt
bound due
inclined
liable likely
prepared
ready unlikely
unwilling
willing

They were unable to help her.

They were not likely to forget it.

I am willing to try.

I'm prepared to say I was wrong.

4. When you want to express an opinion about someone or something, you often use an adjective followed by a ‘to’-infinitive clause.

difficult easy impossible possible right wrong

She had been easy to deceive.

The windows will be almost impossible to open.

Am I wrong to stay here?

Note that in the first two examples, the subject of the main clause is the object of the ‘to’-infinitive clause. In the third example, the subject is the same in both clauses.

5. With some adjectives, you use a ‘that’-clause to express an opinion about someone or something.

awful
bad
essential extraordinary
funny
good important
interesting
obvious sad
true

I was sad that people had reacted in this way.

It is extraordinary that we should ever have met!

6. You can also use adjectives with ‘to’-infinitive clauses after ‘it’ as the impersonal subject. You use the preposition ‘of ’ or ‘for’ to indicate the person or thing that the adjective relates to.

It was easy to find the path.

It was good of John to help me.

It was difficult for her to find a job.

再談幾種cumulative sentences的方法

上一篇10個DSE英文5星作文必用句構(10): coordinate and subordinate cumulative sentence提過cumulative sentence有分coordinate及subordinate,前者是modifying phrase圍繞住main clause咁補充資料,subordinate則是每個modifying phrase都係修飾或補充之前那clause或phrase.

今日想補充的是,提供幾種cumulative sentence最後那modifying phrase的寫法。說最後的modifying phrase，當然不一定，但擺係最後,有round up一句句子的意味.

第一種: 明喻

例子:

"The boy sat down at the table, eagerly anticipating the 
feast, never suspecting it would be the last meal he 
would eat, acting as carefree as a lark.”

句子最後的acting as carefree as a lark是present participial phrase, 功能是俾一個比喻, 給讀者一種意像.

“The chef prepared the fish, carefully, stuffing it with 
wild rice, sautéing it briefly, its sweet aroma blending 
smoothly with the other enticing odors in the kitchen, 
the fish becoming more than food, ascending to the status 
of art, as if transformed by magic.”

除了as ..as, 明喻也可以as if...的形式出現.

"She watched this smile come, awkward as if he were 
smiling from inside a mask."

awkward as if he were smiling from inside a mask是appositive adjective加上as if子句.

"He spoke slowly, mechanically, without inflection, like 
a robot."

呢句的like a robot係prepositional phrase,

第二種:猜測

很多時modifying phrase是給予一個解釋,所以會用possibly, perhaps, possibly/perhaps because開始那modifying phrase.

"The dog froze in place, ears up to detect the slightest 
sound, eyes riveted on the clump of brush, possibly 
sensing danger."

possibly sensing danger是「副詞+participial phrase」,提供了subject一系列動作的猜測.有總結之功能.

"He suddenly ran off the stage, possibly because he had 
forgotten his lines, possibly because he had just noticed 
the audience for the first time, perhaps even because he 
was in some physical distress."

除了用participial phrase作解釋外, 也可直接用subordinate clause去解釋, 不過加上perhaps, possibly等副詞.

"The fire spread quickly, its flames fanned by the stiff 
breeze, consuming the small apartment in minutes, 
possibly the result of a candle left burning too close to 
blowing curtains."

the result of a candle left burning too close to blowing curtains是apposition,modifying phrase的一種. 加上possibly作出一種猜側.

比起possibly/perhaps, likely/more likely甚至actually是更肯定的猜測:

"The guard fainted, dropping his rifle, crumpling at the 
feet of the queen, likely a casualty of poor training and 
poor conditioning."

likely a casualty of poor training and poor conditioning也是「adverb+apposition」.

還有seeming, seemingly, appearing等,也可作表達猜測的modifying phrase的開頭. 

"Each essay explored another of the writer’s fears, seeming to reveal an almost infinite number of pathologies, each appearing more threatening than the last."

seeming to reveal an almost infinite number of pathologies, each appearing more threatening than the last也是participial phrase, 特別之處在於seem後面可以跟adjectives, 又可跟to infinitive, 因為seem是linking verb, 同樣appear也是linking verb:

"The young novelist produced bestseller after bestseller, 
appearing to have stumbled on the magic formula for 
literary success."

seemingly則變成了另一個像perhaps的副詞, 可駁appositive adjective phrase. 

"She built her business slowly, opening a new store only 
when its success was certain, seemingly incapable of 
miscalculations when assessing likely profits."

(內容參考:Landon, Brooks. Building Great Sentences, How to Write the Kinds of Sentences You Love to Read, Plume 2013)

coordinate and subordinate cumulative sentence

來到呢個系列最後.之前介紹過, 用post noun modifier,包括participial clause, adjective,prepositional phrase等等,來修飾主句的主語或受詞, 或用adverbial修飾動詞，甚至自己作個新的subject出嚟,以Absolute phrase去修飾主句. 其實目的,都係想教大家,不要只係以用conjunction, 無論係coordinating conjunctions,或subordinating conjunction去串連, 而要用modifying (adjectival/adverbial/apposition) phrase的方法. 

呢度要指出一點,就係呢啲modifying (adjectival/adverbial/appodition) phrase,一定要兩個或以上. 因為加一個太少. 但加兩個,也有分兩種,一種叫coordinate cumulative sentence, 一種叫subordinate cumulative sentence.

所謂coordinate cumulative sentence, 即係那兩個或以上的modifying phrase, 都係修飾一個main clause,或叫base clause. 例如:

The dog lunged toward him, fangs bared, eyes rolled back in anger.

The dog lunged toward him是base clause, fangs bared係absolute phrase, eyes rolled back in anger又係absolute phrase. 兩個modifying phrase都修飾個base clause.

The storm raged on, a brutal assault, indiscriminate in its destruction.

a brutal assault是apposition, indiscriminate in its destruction係appositive adjectives+介詞短語. 

She served the dessert, a French pastry affair, dripping with dark chocolate.

a French pastry affair係同位語, dripping with dark chocolate係present participial phrase.

I photographed her against the sunset, a goddess, her white gauze robe glowing blond with mellow light.

a goddess係同位語, her white gauze robe glowing blond with mellow light係absolute phrase. 

所以你睇到,modifying phrase有好多類, 製造好多句子變化.

理論上, coordinate cumulative sentence的modifying phrase可在任句子任何位置, 可以是句子頭,句子中,句子尾, 次序也無限制. 但實際上, 呢啲modifying phrase的擺位和先後次序其實要合乎邏輯. 呢方面有機會再詳談. 　

而subordinate cumulate sentence,係那些modifying phrase,只會修飾之前(preceding)那句或短語. 當然也有兩種結合的mix subordinate cumulative sentence, 即同時係有兩個或以上的modifying phrase修飾base clause, 但也有些modifying phrase係修飾之前的子句/短語的,而不是修飾base clause. 事實上大部分真實句子都係mix cumulative sentence, 因為如果係pure coordinate cumulative sentence, 會好重覆,因為啲modifying phrase無論加幾多,都係為咗base clause加多啲細節. 另一方面, pure subordinate cumulative sentence又係另一個極端, 將主句係咁延伸, 去到最後個主句講咩已經變得唔重要,例如:

“He drove carefully, one hand on the wheel, the other hand holding a sandwich, a fossilized ham and cheese, a strangely colored lump made three days before by his sister, a success, the basic happiness of feeling loved and needed.”

上面呢句就係pure subordinate cumulative sentence, 因為每個modifying phrase都係修飾緊之前的子句或短語 (the immediately preceding clause or phrase). 它的特徵係那些modifying phrase唔可以隨便調來調去, 一定係跟死它要修飾的子句/短語. 　

完結時以一句有名小說家Joseph Conrad寫的句子,作為mix cumulative sentence的例子:

The great wall of vegetation,an exuberant and entangled mass of trunks, branches, leaves, boughs, festoons, motionless in the moonlight, was like a rioting invasion of soundless life, a rolling wave of plants piled up, crested, ready to topple over the creek, [ready] to sweep every little man of us out of his little existence. (Heart of Darkness)

嘗試自己分析下,邊個modifying phrase係coordinate (修飾主句),邊個modifying phrase係subordinate(不是修飾主句)吧!

[以上句子和參考內容來自: Brooks Landon, "Building Great Sentences, How to Write the Kinds of Sentences You love to Read")

形容詞倒裝句

                                   

今日國慶日,我卻在家,聽咗英國工黨領袖Jeremy Corbyn發表的長達一個小時的演說.

作為左翼的支持者,我當然對佢講既野有興趣. 從中也學吓英文.

像以下這一句:

Some of them have been driven into it as their only response to keep an income coming in, insecure though it is.

作為左翼政黨,當然係保障工人利益, 他講到很多人被迫要做自聘人士, 雖然那很不安全.上句中insecure though it is是倒裝句, 即though it is insecure. 之所以倒裝,當然係想強調形容詞insecure.

(注:有些人定義inversion係verb+subject inversion, 咁上句就唔係Inversion 了. 參:http://fullspate.digitalcounterrevolution.co.uk/efl-advanced-grammar/)

特首2015施政報告亦有類似的形容詞倒裝句:

However, of crucial importance is the support of local communities and other people. 

of crucial importance是形容詞短語. 它調去句子開頭也是為強調.

各位同學,多了解政治, 又從中學英文, 鼓勵大家聽吓呢篇演說: http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/jeremy-corbyns-full-speech-labour-6539944

我個人最喜歡這段,代表了左翼政治所堅持的理想:

Let’s build that kinder, more caring world.

Since the dawn of history in virtually every human society there are some people who are given a great deal and many more people who are given little or nothing.

Some people have property and power, class and capital, status and clout which are denied to the many.

And time and time again, the people who receive a great deal tell the many to be grateful to be given anything at all.

They say that the world cannot be changed and the many must accept the terms on which they are allowed to live in it.

These days this attitude is justified by economic theory.

The many with little or nothing are told they live in a global economy whose terms cannot be changed.

They must accept the place assigned to them by competitive markets.

By the way, isn’t it curious that globalisation always means low wages for poor people, but is used to justify massive payments to top chief executives.

Our Labour Party came into being to fight that attitude.

That is still what our Labour Party is all about. Labour is the voice that says to the many, at home and abroad: “you don’t have to take what you’re given.”

Labour says:

“You may be born poor but you don’t have to stay poor. You don’t have to live without power and without hope.

“You don’t have to set limits on your talent and your ambition - or those of your children.

"You don’t have to accept prejudice and discrimination, or sickness or poverty, or destruction and war.

“You don’t have to be grateful to survive in a world made by others.

No, you set the terms for the people in power over you, and you dismiss them when they fail you.”

That’s what democracy is about.

如果香港特首識得咁講就好了.

否定詞開始的倒裝句

否定詞通常是倒裝句的開始,例如:

Not a single word did he utter.

Never have I seen such a beautiful bird.

Under no circumstances must the window be opened.
In no less measure did we fear our punishments.

用否定句的目的是為了在考試中show off (一笑). 實際上, 用否定句是為了突出「不」的意思.

不過要留意一點,就是以上的否定詞修飾句子主句或子句的動詞或受詞的副詞,若否定副詞是主語的一部分,便無需或無法倒裝,如:

Not one dollar was spent. (Not one dollar是主語)

Not a single word passed his lips. (Not a single word是主語)

另外,用only開始的倒裝句,分兩種:

第一種: only +prep (介詞)

Only in midnight do bats leave their caves.

Only with studying hard can we succeed.

第二種: only when (副詞)

Only when my mother comes home does my wife cooks.
Only then did I realize what he meant.
Only now do I realize what he means.

每次作文,都提自己要用only開始的倒裝句吧.

以下個表幾好:

Hardly	Hardly had I got into bed when the telephone rang.
Never	Never had she seen such a beautiful sight before.
Seldom	Seldom do we see such an amazing display of dance.
Rarely	Rarely will you hear such beautiful music.
Only then	Only then did I understand why the tragedy had happened.
Not only ... but	Not only does he love chocolate and sweets but he also smokes.
No sooner	No sooner had we arrived home than the police rang the doorbell.
Scarcely	Scarcely had I got off the bus when it crashed into the back of a car.
Only later	Only later did she really think about the situation.
Nowhere	Nowhere have I ever had such bad service.
Little	Little did he know!
Only in this way	Only in this way could John earn enough money to survive.
In no way	In no way do I agree with what you're saying.
On no account	On no account should you do anything without asking me first.

留意以下呢幾種, 倒裝句發生在main clause:

Not until	Not until I saw John with my own eyes did I really believe he was safe.
Not since	Not since Lucy left college had she had such a wonderful time.
Only after	Only after I'd seen her flat did I understand why she wanted to live there.
Only when	Only when we'd all arrived home did I feel calm.
Only by	Only by working extremely hard could we afford to eat.

(source: http://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/inversion.html)

Absolute phrase

今日想介紹的是Absolute phrase,或稱Absolute Construction.請看下句:

It must also be able to implement the Urban Renewal Strategy with minimum delay, the aim being to reduce the time taken to complete projects to an average of six years.

呢句句子有兩句,用comma連接,特別之處在於兩句都都有其subject,分別是it和the aim,為何可以這樣呢?

句子要變長,基本上得三種方法,第一種是加連接詞,第二種是加modifying phrase,包括participial phrase, prepositional phrase, infinitive phrase, relative clause.這些都已介紹了.今日介紹的是第三種:Absolute phrase.

Absolute phrase的構成部份是"subject+ modifier"，這subject是main clause的subject以外的另外一個subject.從佢與主句的主語的關係，可出現三種情況。

第一種，與主句最有關係，就係重覆主句的受詞。這其實是我我另一篇:「延長句子方法系列(3):同位語 (apposition)」提到的"resumptive modifier", 它是同位語，但也是Absolute phrase.例子：

“The woman closed the door, a door made of rough-hewn oak”或

“The woman closed the door, the door she had never before dared to close.”

無論是indefinite article "a/an"或definite article "the", 所跟的名詞都係主句出現過的受詞.

第二種，仍與主句有關，係用一個與主句的主詞／受詞／動詞有關的posessisve pronoun開始，加上一個名詞。例子：

“The woman closed the door, its massive hinges creaking eerily.” 或

“The woman closed the door, her delicate fingers white as she seemed to try to choke the doorknob.”

第三種，真係同主句可以話係無關係了，因為係用完全獨立於主句的字作absolute phrase的主語：

“The woman closed the door, a car alarm beeping in the background”

呢三種absolute phrase可同時用於一句句子中，例如：

(1) They sat down at the table, (2) he quietly awed by the restaurant’s fabled elegance, (3) his left hand admiringly rubbing the silk tablecloth, (3) his right hand tracing the etching on a fine crystal goblet, (2) she distracted by and obviously more interested in the other diners, (3) her eyes drawn to tables at which sat well-known celebrities, (3) her imagination running wild about others she didn’t recognize, (2) the table an altar to excess,(3) its place settings sporting no less than four different kinds of forks, (3) its intricately patterned china giving off a kind of radiance, (2) the overall scene suggesting what it might be like to dine at a restaurant in heaven.

括號內數字代表各子句的level. 

而modifier則不限participial phrase(包括present participial phrase和past participial phrase),可以是簡單adjective、prepositional phrase(介詞短語)、或不定詞短語(to-infinitive phrase).現逐點列舉:

1. subject+現在分詞短語

Time permitting, we can have a gathering.

2. subject+過去分詞短語

The job done, we can relax a bit.

3. subject+形容詞

He asked me to go out, his face red. 

4. subject+介詞短語

He asked me to go out, a bunch of flowers in his hands. 

5. subject+不定詞短語

I have watched the first two episodes, the last one to be watched later. 

另外,還有一種是「subject+副詞」,例如:

Lessons over, the students went home happily.

其實這句是"Lessons being over, the students went home happily." Lesson being over簡化為Lessons over, 原本的over是修飾being的副詞,因being可簡化,所以個結果好似係副詞修飾名詞咁.

同位語 (apposition)

同位語是跟名詞或代詞後與該名詞或代名詞作補充說明的單詞、語或從句。同位語與有關的名詞或代名詞有同等的地位。

其中一種分類法是restrictive 及non-restrictive. 

1. non-restrictive

例: Miss Wong, our English teacher, is wonderful.

在這句句子中，our English teacher即是Miss Wong，our English Teacher是Miss Wong的同位語。Miss Wong是是很具體的名字，不用去限制（restrict)是哪個Miss Wong, 而our English teacher只是額外的資訊。

例:My father, a policeman, is very strong. （我的父親是個警察，他很健碩。)

又例如我們常用的for example,也是在介紹apposition的狀語:

I  love fruits, for example, apples and oranges.(apples and oranges是同位語)

2. restrictive

另一種是restrictive,限制性的同位語。例如：

My sister Gloria became a nurse after her classmate Ben took a job at hospital.

在呢句裡，Gloria是My sister的同位語，Ben是her classmate的同位語；因為我有多過一個妹，我因此要指月我指哪個妹；因為她有多過一個同學，所以要用Ben來指定是哪個同學。這一種同位語不用comma. 

限定性同位語也可以由that、if/whether或wh-word所形成，例如：That you are late annoys me.（你遲到激怒了我。）這種that子句，經常是加在一些名字後成為同位語。例：

He tried to conceal the fact that he was not rich. (他企圖隱藏他根本不有錢的事實。)

Fact是經常接that子句作同位語的名詞，另外還有fact, truth, evidence, proof, law, statement, explanation, apology, excuse, suggestion, advice, promise, opinion, notion, theory, view, conclusion, decision, news, report, rumor, saying, idea, thought, belief, doubt, knowledge, generalization, possibility, likelihood, probability, danger, difference等等。

以下介紹另外幾種特別的同位詞組:

1. resumptive modifier

這一種同位語也是去解釋之前所提的名詞，但解釋的方法是重覆剛提及過的名詞。例如:

And so he fought for the country, the country ruled by dictators. 

the country 係同位語，ruled by dictators係part participle adjective.

這resumptive modifier不一定用名詞開頭,可以係形容詞:

He is both responsible and honest, responsible in that he never submits homework late, honest in that he never cheats on exam. 

 大家睇到,以上的main clause後的hypen後的兩組phrases: responsible in that he never submits homework late, 及honest in that he never cheats on exam開頭的都是main clause最後出現的形容詞: responsible及honest, 兩個形容詞後接的是modifier其中一種: 介詞短語. 

我個人認為呢種手法好似中文的「頂真」.例如:例如：「人影溶進了晨霧，晨霧溶進了湖水，湖水溶進了琴聲，而琴聲，溶進了我的心。」用resumptive modifier也可以這樣接龍下去：

He is both responsible and honest, responsible in that he never submits homework late, homework of various subjects to help students to improve their results. 

Resumptive modifier最常見係重覆main clause的名詞，或形容詞，但我也見過是重覆動詞，但比較少見：

The teacher threatens to give the students a hard time, threatens to give more homework, and threatens to punish those who do not submit homework on time.

2. Negative Appositives

呢一種同位語特別之處在於，它不是直接去為剛提及的名詞補充資料，而是用對比的方法，即指出它不是甚麼，來強調這同位語修飾的名詞。例如：

My mother, rather than my girlfriend, will go with me. 

除rather than,也會用 not, never.

3. summative modifier

所謂summative modifier, 其實也似resumptive modifier, 只係resumptive modifier係重覆之前句子的一個詞, 而summative modifier則係用一個名詞去總結或歸納之前句子出現旳名詞或整句句子,再加relative clause或participial phrase. 例如:

The PE teacher teaches basketball, football, handball, and tennis----ball games that interest boys more than girls.

Ball games就係同位語，歸納主句最後出現的幾個名詞: basketball, football, handball, and tennis.

不定詞作名詞修飾語

不定詞(infinitives)與prepositional phrase相似,它可作名詞修飾語,如:

The best way to prevent cancer is healthy diet. 

句中的to prevent cancer便是修飾way的. 

其他例子:

the party after the lesson to celebrate Christmas

the best place in Hong Kong to eat Japanese cuisine

留意，adjectival infinitive有個特徵，就係佢個subject往往不是佢修飾的名詞.例如在上面那兩句, the party to celebrate Christmas, 誰celebrate?當然不是the party,而係學生, students,或whatever. the best place to eat Japanese cuisine, to eat Japanese cuisine當然不是the best place,係人,遊客。 

      

延長句子方法系列(2)d：介詞短語作名詞修飾語或狀語

要係英文作文度成功,一定要識prepositional phrases,介詞短語. 

其實由細細個學英文,已經有好多介詞短語.例如:

Some of us have to go to summer school.

句中的of us,便是preposiitonal phrase, 修飾some呢個代名詞(pronoun), 因此of us的作用是adjective.

又例如呢句:

If enough of you are interested, we'll organize a trip to the theatre. 

當中的enough也是代詞,of you是修飾它的介詞短語/形容詞.

介詞短語可作形容詞,又可作副詞,修飾動詞.例如呢句細細個學的英文:

I go to school.

句中的to school是介詞短語,修飾go,所以是副詞.

又例如past,很多人不知可以是介詞,修飾動詞:

We walked out of the gallows yard, past the condemned cells with their waiting prisoners, into the big central yard of the prison.

上句共有三個介詞短語(out of the gallows yard, past the condemned cells.., into the big central yard...), out,past和into也修飾walked. 注意,同時間後兩個的介詞短語裡也有介詞短語: with their waiting prisoners修飾cells, of the prison修飾yard.

介詞短語又可修飾句子,作副詞.例如:

With the exam approaching, it's a good idea to review your notes.

這種with的用法有「因為」的意思, 也可表達雖然：

With all her faults, she's still a really good friend.

總之,唔識用prepositional phrase,永遠也寫不出好英文.

同位語形容詞

如何將以下兩句結合?

He went to speak to Mrs. Bean. 

She was tiny among the pillows.

一個方法就是用adjective modifier，把形容Mrs Bean的形容詞以comma放係第一句之後:

He went to speak to Mrs. Bean, tiny among the pillows.

還有:

His business plan was a joke, little more than a childish dream. 

其實呢一種句子後的adjective有一個名俾佢,叫appositive adjectives, 因為呢種形容詞擺法好似apposition (同位語), 只係同位語通常係noun phrase. 

其他例子:

Donald is a good man, kind, strong, and helpful.

I still love to live in Hong Kong--open, free, and civilized.  

He went to university to study English literature, classical and modern.  

The birds, lovely and noisy, are my pets. 

留意，adjective也是free modifier的一種，所以可以出現句子的開頭、中間、或最尾：

The birds, lovely and noisy, are my pets. Lovely and noisy, the birds are my pets. The birds are my pets, lovely and noisy. 

送大家一句大師級句子: 

"Melrose in his skullcap, sitting sideways in his chair, his cigarette held aloft, presented a profile which might have been that of some Venetian Doge, old, withered and crafty."(Mary Augusta Ward, The Mating of Lydia, 1913)

延長句子方法(3)：後置名詞修飾語之分詞詞組

當講到participle phrase, 不外乎講兩種，一種叫做present partipial phrase,即用verb-ing開始的phrase, 一種是past participial phrase,即用過去分詞開始的phrase.例如:

Present partipial phrase: Entering the 21st century, China has emerged as an economic powerhouse that can rival that of Japan, the US and the Europe.

Past participial phrase: Written by the personnel director, the office manual details the rules of employment.

記得以前教學生呢種句子結構時,好多時學生係唔明究竟個分詞應該係present participle定past participle. 其實要分究竟應用邊種分詞,只係睇個動作係主動定被動.一點也不複雜.

呢度要特別講兩個特別情況, 一個係錯的, 一個係模稜兩可的.

錯的句子結構叫dangling modifier. 例子:

Having finished the assignment, the TV was turned on.

句子中having finished the assignment係個participial phrase, the TV was turned on係個main clause. 問題係:究竟那participial phrase修飾main clause哪部分? the TV? TV唔會做功課喎. 其實個作者係想講:

Having finished the assignment, Tim turned on the TV.

呢句句子個participial phrase好明顯係修飾Tim. 

係Having finished the assignment, the TV was turned on呢句句子,我地叫Having finished the assignment係dangling modifier. 因為呢句participial phrase要修飾的東西,根本唔見咗, (dangle,即吊咗係半空,搵唔到落腳點)

另一種情況就相反,唔係搵唔到要modify的物體,卻係有多過一個可修飾的句子部份.例:

The woman closed the door, driven by the wind.

究竟driven by the wind係指the woman定係the door? 

基本上,兩種句子也要提防.

延長句子方法系列(2)：後置名詞修飾語種類

延長句子,要用postnoun modifier(後置名詞修飾語）.有幾多種postnoun modifier呢？

第一種是adjective, 最普通的形容詞. 形容詞一般加係前面,加係後面的情況,可以係一般adjectives,也可能是participles.會開一篇詳談. 

第二種也是普遍的prepositional phrase,也是十分常用. 我也會寫一篇介紹.

第三種有少少似第一種的participle,但不是單詞,而是短語(phrase),叫participial phrase.像participle一樣,分present participial phrase及perfect participial phrase. 也會開一篇講.

第四種是類似prepositional phrase的不定詞短語(infinitives).Infinitives的主要成份是動詞,因此可能有動詞補語(complements)或副詞短語(adverbial),比prespositional phrase複雜少少.會有一篇講.

第五種noun modifier是relative clause,也是今篇要講的內容.

第六種是名詞短語(noun phrase). 名詞一向可以係另一個名詞之前作adjectival,例如ice cream, bus stop.同時也可以係postnoun adjectivial,例如

the party last night
the ride home

最後一種係大家估唔到的adverb. Adverb可修飾名詞?對呀, adverb可作adjectivial. 例:

That is my idea exactly.(exactly是idea的adjectival)

The residents here have no future. (here是residents的adjectival)

說回今篇的題目. 其實relative clause好多中學生大概中二都會學。relative clause又名adjectival clause, 好明顯係因為relative clause根本就係去modify名詞. 例如:

Friends are people who can share joy and pain with you.

呢度想指出一樣野. 就係句中的relative clause, 中學生都會學係defining relative clause,或叫restrictive relative clause. 意思即係因為句子它要修飾的名詞唔清楚係邊個, 所以要指明.例如上面個句, Friends are people, 咁係咩人? 就係啲會同你share joy and pain嘅人。所以呢個relative clause係去限制(restrict)個Noun phrase可能的referents(所指).

我想補充一點,就係呢種無comma的 relative clause, 除咗restrictive之外, 有時更加似係descriptive. 例如:

Mary has a daughter who is very diligent. 

呢句嚟講, who is very diligent係咪去限制daughter呢?你可以話, Mary has a daughter who is diligent呢句,係想講Mary個女究竟係咩類型、咩性格等. 所以與其用restrictive去形容,不如用descriptive. 

延長句子方法(1):用狀語修飾動詞

首先大家要明白咩係狀語(adverbial).

狀語即係modifier of the verb(動詞的修飾語),回答何時、何地、為何、如何等W問題(when, why, where, how) 

所以延長句子,首先要講的,係點樣可以以修飾動詞來延長句子.

基本上有五種修飾動詞的辦法:

第一種是副詞,例如: She goes to work late. Late是goes的副詞.

第二種是prepositional phrase. 例如呢句有三個介詞短語:

We hiked in Sai Kung for three hours on Sunday.

in Sai Kung答哪裡,for three hours答多久,on Sunday答何時.

第三種係大家都估唔到的,就係名詞短語(noun phrase).估唔到,因為無人唸到原來名詞也可作狀語用,但事實上呢種句子我地經常見到:

She walked home.

I am leaving next year.

I am going your way.

I travel a great deal.

He flies business class.

I sent the mail airmail.

He arrived yesterday.

有趣嗎? 舉例:He arrived yesterday, yesterday是答緊佢幾時到, 咁當然係adverbial, 但yesterday大家要知道係名詞嚟架.

第四種係動詞短語,最主要都是不定詞短語(infinitives).例:

Mary is taking a Semantics course this year to understand the relationship between words. 

句中的to understand the relationship between words是修飾is taking,解釋為何Mary要take a Semantics course.

這裡要留意, 不定詞作副詞時, 它的subject也是main clause的subject, 例如在上句, to understand的subject跟is taking的subject一樣是是Mary. 

補充一句, 不定詞跟in order to大致上也是一樣的,只係in order to係一個phrasal preposition. 例如上句, 就等於:

Mary is taking a Semantics course this year in order to understand the relationship between words. 

我說大致上,因為有啲時候infinitives不是解"為了", 例如:

I arrived home only to find the light had not been switched off. 

如果呢句的infinitive係解"為咗"就唔合理, 因為我返屋企的目的唔係去發現燈未熄.咁點解呢? 其實句子反而係較似:

I arrived home and found the light had not been switched off. 

咁幾時知呢個infinitives係解「目的是」,幾時唔係咁解? 呢個真係好難講,只能夠話大部分情況都係解「目的係」,唔係咁解的情況有限.



最後第五種就係呢篇介紹的adverb clause, 或adverbial clause. 例如這句:

No matter the size of your campaign, this chapter helps you to integrate printed materials, which may include print advertising as well as e-brochures.

          No matter what you do, you'll succeed if you don't give up. 

No matter how hard I try, I just can’t win her heart. 

No matter..., 我們叫subordinate clause. no matter我們叫做subordinate conjunction. No matter what you do或no matter how hard I try都是subordinate clause.

留意,no matter what 可精簡為whatever, no matter how 精簡為however:

Whatever you do, you'll if you don't give up.

However I try, I just can't win her heart. 

參考:http://www.learnerhall.org/2013/01/no-matter-whatwhichwhohowwherewhen.html