比較句式系列8: much less

=not to mention

She cannot buy daily necessities, much less luxuries.
她連生活必需品都不能買，更不用說奢侈品。

The baby can't even walk, much less run.
这婴儿连走都不会, 更不用说跑了。

I know no English, much less French.
我不懂英语, 法语就更不懂了。

比較句式系列7: as +adj+ a/an+ noun+ as possible

e.g The aim of the film is to give the spectator as perfect an illusion of reality as possible.  

10大標點符號常見錯誤(5): i.e.後有comma嗎?

http://www.dailywritingtips.com/comma-after-i-e-and-e-g/

http://www.writingsimplified.com/2009/09/how-to-use-ie-and-eg.html

http://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/grammar/ie-versus-eg

http://english.stackexchange.com/questions/16172/should-i-always-use-a-comma-after-e-g-or-i-e

10個一般人唔識的連接詞1: inasmuch as

 inasmuch as 由於，因為，鑑於; 在…範圍內 

用法: 

I did not criticize her acting, inasmuch as I really did not feel competent. 
(我沒有去評論她的演技，因為我確實覺得這方面自己並不在行) 
* 這句的 inasmuch as 表因為之意 

He was a very unusual musician inasmuch as he was totally deaf. 
(他完全失聰了，從這點上來說，他是個很了不起的音樂家) 
*這句的 inasmuch as 是鑑於之意 

His duty is to assist the aggrieved person inasmuch as he is able. 
(他的責任是盡其所能幫助受害人) 
*這句的inasmuch as 在…能力所及範圍內

領展問題

引子: Link=Link住更多賺錢機會

背景: 

起：房委會2004年陷入財困，因董建華８萬五政策，居屋蝕錢，政府不願承擔房委會的財政赤字比率。

承：政府飲鴆［讀：朕］止渴，變賣公共資源，以自由市場作檔箭牌

轉：房委會套現200億

合：樓價飛漲，領滙因此不停加租，民怨沸騰，小租戶租不起，連鎖集團進駐


持份者及其責任：

1. 房委會:為了財政赤字

2. 立法會：通過議案，合乎法律程序

3. 領展：作為上市公司，以股東利益為第一考慮，無錯

小結：世上悲劇往往是每個人打著自己的算盤「無意」釀成


解決辦法：

1. 政府回購領展:

Pro: 回購25%，重奪話事權

Con1: 2004年領匯值200億，今日已值1000億，用公帑賤賣貴買？領展真的值1000億嗎?

Con2: 國有經濟方案不好

Con3: 根據《房地產投資信託基金守則》,凡擁有10%基金單位重大持有人,不能就涉及利益衝突的交易投票

2. 《競爭條例》

Pro: 2015年12月開始實施《競爭條例》,其中《禁止反競爭的協議》與《禁止業務實體濫用市場權勢》的相關規定要落實，而其中合併守則之「禁止反競爭的合併與收購安排」目前只適用於涉及《電訊條例》下傳送者牌照的持有人，應盡快推廣至其他行業。

3. 租金管制

Pro: 反壟斷輔助政策

4. 恢復商業生態多樣性

Pro: 政府要積極推動在公屋附近興建同質小商場、街市，用較低價格租給商戶，恢復商業生態多樣性，用市場方法處理市場缺陷，杜絕壟斷


結論：

自由主義根本不自由，原教旨自由經濟主義把「無形之手」吹得太大，市民失法選擇，生活成本攀升，社會撕裂。打破迷信，才是公義的做法。

延申閱讀：領展大集滙

家務技巧與原理系列2: 如何正確使用抽濕機

【抽濕機燒屋】回南天濕笠笠 抽濕機安全使用有貼士

2016-03-20 13:00:00 HKT


(資料圖片)
近日回南天，天氣潮濕，連大廈走廊天花及地板如「出汗」般濕笠笠，戶外亦白濛濛一片，抽濕機亦大派用場，但如不正當地使用，可能會釀火警焚宅。《蘋果》現綜合專家及消費者委員會的建議，大家可作參考及留意有否做妥。

安全使用抽濕機小貼士：

1.操作期間應關上門窗，以免濕氣不斷滲入室內減低抽濕效果；

2.出風口、吸風口不可被阻擋，確保有足夠空間讓機器散熱；

3.定期清除積塵，避免灰塵積聚於絕緣體引致洩電；

4.應勤清洗貯水器，避免滋生藻類或細菌

5.不應讓有關抽濕機長期使用，如嗅得有異味或異響，應找專人協助檢查；

6.不使用時，要關閉並拔下抽濕機的電源；

7.留意電線有否出現龜裂；

8.雖然抽濕機耗電量不大，但亦不宜與其他耗電量大的電器共同使用同一個拖板。

資料來源：綜合專家及消費者委員會

學術句子句型系列4:說明論文/研究/寫作目的

This research proposal undertakes to clarify the meaning of alienation and examine the extent of its occurrence and the factors that contribute to alienation among knowledge workers.

It is therefore apposite 恰當的to analyse 'Frost at Midnight' with a view to revealing how the key concerns of Romanticism were communicated through the poem.

學術句子句型系列3:某某強調

 In 'Frost at Midnight', Coleridge highlights 強調the Romantic conviction that the poet's role is not to hold a mirror up to nature but to use the fountains of memories and feelings which nature evokes to create something valuable and uniquely individual.

Day's explanation highlights the way in which 'Frost at Midnight' embodies and explores not just the literary principles of Romanticism but also its wider philosophy.

After the ousting of Charles I, Royalists laid a new stress on indefeasible hereditary right (characteristic in the sixteenth and earlier seventeenth century of French rather than English theorists).

學術句子句型系列2: xx展現了(主題)

By its use of such a structure 'Frost at Midnight' also illustrates Abrams's observation that Romantic poetry should be less an 'imitation of nature' than a 'representation of the poet's internal emotions'.

Such instances are effective in illustrating the Romantic precept （尤指道德方面的）戒律，規矩，準則that the seemingly familiar or innocuous 無害的aspects of nature can still fill the viewer with awe – an example of the ‘glorification of the normal’ as described by Abrams.

 It is therefore apposite 恰當的to analyse 'Frost at Midnight' with a view to revealing how the key concerns of Romanticism were communicated through the poem.

Divine right as a theme permeates Shakespeare’s plays

In others, such as Mid Summers Night’s Dream, it is less obvious and is reflected more in the patriarchal relationship of the characters to one another. 

Because the ideology of divine right was essentially a propaganda tool and a method of instilling obedience in the subject classes, it found its way into most communication forms including plays

The girl’s inability to speak Spanish with the bartender, moreover, not only illustrates her dependence on the American but also the difficulty she has expressing herself to others.

From the outset of the story, the contentious nature of the couple's conversation indicates resentment and unease

This is the first point in the story where the incompatibility and personality differences are clearly exemplified through dialogue. 

學術句子句型系列2:Talking about points of view

My grandfather holds some surprising progressive views.

It is important that the university should adopt a principled stance towards research.

Lucy was initially totally opposed to the idea but she has slightly shifted her position.

Increasing numbers of people have ethical objections to the war.

Treat others as you would like to be treated is a principle underlying much religious teaching.

As one of the few female students of the 1920s, my grandmother encountered a certain amount of prejudice.

John does not share his father's deep-rooted prejudices against women. 

學術句子句型系列1:某某認為/ 某某的意見認為

用名詞

She provides an explanation as to how information technology is changing societly.

He gives a description of the process of language change. 

His suggestion that poets are influenced by their childhood is uncontroversial.

His statement that problems arose earlier than previously thought has been challenged.

His claim/assertion/ contention that the causes of the revolution can be traced back to the 18th century is worth considering in some depth. 

His implication that other historians have misinterpreted the period has caused some controversy.

His argument that governments should continue to fund space research is convincing.

His emphasis/stress on the importance of taking a liberal approach is not new.

His observation that there are contradictions in his interpretation of the poem has been supported by a number of other scholars.

His demonstration of the way in which Bach's music draws on the work of earlier composers is fascinating.

His proof of the link between obesity and genes is of consideratble interest.

用動詞

In his introduction to the Norton Anthology of English Literature M. H. Abrams attempts to overcome these difficulties by identifying the 'five cardinal of ​great ​importance:elements' of Romantic poetry. 


Vegetarianism is one cause she does not espouse. 她並不贊成素食主義。

This ambiguity leaves a good deal of room for interpretation; while most critics have espoused relatively straightforward interpretations of the dialogue (with the girl as the dynamic character, traveling reluctantly from rejection to acceptance of the idea of an abortion), a few have argued for alternate scenarios based upon the same dialogue.

認為的同義詞

source: Academic Vocabulary in Use with Answers, Michael McCarthy, Felicity O'Dell

比較句式系列6:... not so much + (a/an) +noun + as + (a/an)+noun

1. ... not so much + (a/an) +noun/adj.  + as+ (a/an)+noun

e.g. A range of postmodern thinkers has criticized the impulses of modern rationality. They argue that it brings us not so much progress (進步) as domination and oppression (壓迫).

句式:not so much+一個名詞+as+第二個名詞.重點在第二個名詞.句子意思即係它帶來壓迫多於進步.　

 It’s not that he’s contemplating suicide as much as reflecting on life, and we find that theme all through the text.

2. not so much +adj+ as + adj

e.g. He is not so much gay as bisexual.

e.g. God is not so much temporally prior as prior to    temporality.

MLA引用文獻格式5: Works CitedI之Journal Articles

1. 格式:Author's name. “Article Title.” Title of Journal Volume.Issue (Publication Yr): Pages. Format. 

    例子:Quincy, Bérnard. "Plato and Shakespeare on Love." 
    History of Philosophy Quarterly 26.2 (2009): 103-20. Print.

2. E-Journal格式: Author's name. “Article Title.” Title of Journal Volume.Issue (Publication Yr): Pages. Database name. Medium. Date of Access. 

    E-Journal例子:Butte, G. "Henry James and Deep      
    Intersubjectivity." The Henry James Review 30.2 (2009): 129-
    143. Academic Research Library. Web. 16 Dec. 2014.

比較句式系列5:... is less + a/an +noun + than + a/an+noun

By its use of such a structure 'Frost at Midnight' also illustrates Abrams's observation that Romantic poetry should be less an 'imitation of nature' than a 'representation of the poet's internal emotions'.

句式: ...is less + a/an +noun + than + a/an+noun 

寫文學論文方法2:做literature review

呢篇範文以literature review的方法為每個TERM做定義

A Study of Alienation among Knowledge Workers

‘The hidden conflict between the knowledge workers view of himself as a professional and the social reality in which he is the upgraded well paid successor to the skilled worker of yesterday, underlies the disenchantment of so many highly educated young people with the jobs available to them’ -  (Drucker, 1969, p 259)  

        Knowledge workers (KWs) are thought to be the engines of growth of the new economy (Yigitcanlar, Baum & Horton, 2007) and the key strategic and competitive resources of today’s organizations (O’Neill & Adya, 2007). Considerable attention has been directed to the analysis of knowledge work and knowledge intensive firms in recent years (Alvesson, 1995, 2001; Burton-Jones, 1999; Donnelly, 2006; Swan & Scarborough, 2001). Because of the emphasis on human capital in knowledge-intensive firms (Edvinsson & Malone, 1997), where tacit knowledge residing within workers is the chief asset of the organization, it has become imperative to retain KWs and ensure their continued commitment to the organization. Davenport et al. (2002) observe that companies cannot risk alienating the KW. However, there has been little attention directed at alienation of KWs in contemporary management research, even though Drucker hinted at their potential alienation very early on, as the opening quote suggests.

        Alienation has traditionally been studied with respect to the blue collar worker. Research on alienation among the non manual worker is limited, although some research attention has been devoted to alienation among professionals in the late 70s and 80s (Allen & Lafollette, 1977; Korman, Wittig-Berman, & Lang, 1981; Lang, 1985; Organ & Greene, 1981; Podsakoff, Williams & Todor, 1986). Even though the new economy comprises predominantly of KWs (Davenport et al., 2002; Yigitcanlar et al., 2007), there are no empirical studies on alienation among KWs.

        Despite serious consequences such as turnover, lower productivity, workplace aggression, stress and burnout (Abraham, 2000; Dean, 1961;Jackson, Schwab & Schuler, 1986; Jermier, 1988; Seeman, 1967), alienation as a concept has not received much attention in organizational studies (Kohn, 1976). In one of the more recent textbooks on organization behavior, Bratton, Callinan, Forshaw, and Sawchuk, (2007) mention that much of research appears indifferent and ignorant of the concept of alienation. This research proposal undertakes to clarify the meaning of alienation and examine the extent of its occurrence and the factors that contribute to alienation among knowledge workers.

       

Review of Literature on Work Alienation 

        Even though alienation came into prominence in the early writings of Marx (1844/1932), the concept of alienation finds reference across a broad range of subjects such as theology, philosophy, sociology, psychology and psychiatry (see Johnson, 1973 for a review of the usage of the term across various disciplines). Fromm (1955) discussed alienation as the mode of experience in which a person experiences him/herself as an alien or in other words becomes estranged from the self. Horowitz (1966) suggests that alienation implies an intense separation first from objects of the world, second from people, and third from ideas about the world held by other people. The core meaning of the concept of alienation has also been identified with a dissociative state or a sense of separation in relation to some other element in his or her environment (Kanungo, 1979; Schacht, 1970).

        Marx conceptualized alienation as the separation of the worker from ownership. In his Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844, Marx distinguishes three forms of alienation – alienation from the product of work, alienation in the process of production, and alienation from society. Weber’s treatment of the concept of alienation (Gerth & Mills, 1946) has been similar to that of Marx who viewed alienation as emerging from perceived lack of freedom and control at work. Durkheim (1947, trans.) saw alienation as a consequence of the condition of anomie, which refers to the breakdown of norms in society leading to experienced normlessness.

        Seeman’s (1959) seminal work postulate five alternate meanings of alienation as powerlessness, meaninglessness, normlessness, isolation and self estrangement (an improvement on the earlier unidemensional definitions of alienation). A more detailed discussion of these dimensions  undertaken in Appendix A. Seeman’s (1959) classification of alienation has been the basis of several empirical studies (Blauner, 1964; Dean, 1961; Seeman, 1967; Shepard, 1977). However, some authors have questioned the adequacy of the dimensions to explain alienation fully (Kanungo, 1979; Mottaz, 1981; Overend, 1975), arguing that dimensions such as powerlessness and meaninglessness can be viewed as antecedents or even consequences of alienation.      

        Alienation as a concept has lent itself to various definitions and attendant considerable confusion over its meanings, usage and measurement. The complexity of the concept of alienation and the variety of meanings attached to the term makes it difficult to abstract from them one basic meaning of alienation. Table 1 summarizes key definitions of alienation as appearing in the literature.

Table 1: Definitions of alienation

        As can be seen from Table 1, one of the earliest definitions of alienation refers to it as an estrangement from self. Similarly, most definitions allude to the sense of separation (Fromm 1955; Horowitz, 1966; Kanungo, 1979) or dissociative state (Schacht, 1970) or disengagement from work (Hirschfeld & Feild, 2000). Further, this separation has been discussed in relation to work (Hirschfeld & Feild, 2000; Kanungo, 1979), people (Horowitz, 1966; Miller, 1975), some other element in the environment or objects of the world (Horowitz, 1966; Schacht, 1970), and from the self itself (Fromm, 1955). Since the most basic understanding of alienation involves a separation or estrangement and given the varying targets of this separation, work alienation is defined here as estrangement or disconnect from work, the context or the self.

Antecedents of Work Alienation

        Research until the late 80s has focused on conditions that lead to alienation. Broadly the factors can be divided as structural or individual.

The structural determinants of alienation have received much attention since the time of Marx. In his classic study of industrial workers (blue collar) in different industrial situations, Blauner (1964) studying work alienation across four American industries, printing, textile, automobile and the chemical process industry, was  able to isolate the socio-technical characteristics that contribute to alienation, namely technology and the division of labor. He found alienation in its most extreme form in the assembly line production of automobile industry owing to standardized, routine, repetitive and highly fragmented work. Automation in the process chemical industry was seen as contributing less to alienation where skill was replaced by responsibility. Alienation was found to be lowest among craft workers, highest among assembly line and to some extent decreasing in the continuous process plant.

        A few researchers have examined the structural properties of centralization and formalization and its effect on alienation. Allen and Lafollette (1977) found alienation to be directly related to both centralization and formalization. Aiken and Hage (1966) studied the relationship between alienation and two structural properties of organizations (formalization and centralization) in a comparative study of 16 welfare organizations. Alienation was found to be more prominent in highly formalized and highly centralized organizations. However, for professionals the literature yields mixed results. Greene (1978) found formalization to increase alienation for professionals, while some (Organ & Greene, 1981; Podsakoff, Williams & Todor, 1986) have found formalization to reduce alienation through its effect on reduced role ambiguity.  Sarros et al. (2002) examined the extent to which leader behavior (transactional or transformational style) and aspects of the organizational structure (centralization, formalization) relate to work alienation, in a study of a bureaucratic fire department. Results showed that transformational leadership was associated with lower work alienation and structure was negatively associated with transformational leadership, thus having an indirect impact on work alienation.

        Characteristics of the job or the work context have also been examined in relation to alienation by some authors. In his study of blue collar workers, Blauner (1964) found that repetitive routine tasks that grant less autonomy and decision making to the worker, lead to greater alienation. Chisholm and Cummings (1979) on the other hand found no relationships between job characteristics (variety, control, social interaction and purpose), and alienation from work in his study of a manufacturing firm. However, Simpson (1999) studying the work context in the electronic era found elements of the work context such as contractual work and manning of computerized systems granting limited contact with other coworkers, contributing to alienation. Kohn (1976) identified two possible sources of alienation as the loss of control over the product of one’s labor and the loss of control over the work process. Similarly, Mottaz (1981) found lack of control over tasks and lack of meaningful work as predictors of alienation.

        Compared to the structural variables, research on individual level determinants of work alienation is relatively sparse. The effect of locus of control on alienation has been studied by a few researchers. It has been suggested that individuals who have an external locus of control tend to be more alienated from the work setting (Banai, Reisel & Probst, 2004; Korman et al., 1981). A model of alienation among professionals and managers was tested by Korman et al. (1981) where expectancy disconfirmation and loss of affiliative satisfactions were found to be factors affecting alienation. Lang (1985) found that people from high socio economic status background are more likely to experience alienation when encountering lack of fulfillment. Rosner and Putterman (1991) also suggest that education increases the individual’s ability to derive satisfaction from work and raises his/her level of dissatisfaction if forced to do routine and unchallenging work.

Operationalization of Alienation

        One of the earliest operationalizations of alienation was a seven item index developed by Seeman (1967) derived from the Blauner (1964) survey. Blauner (1964) used the Roper Fortune Survey questionnaire that asked a range of questions that relate to the experience of the work for the respondent. The five item scale of alienation developed by Miller (1967) assesses sense of pride and accomplishment in work, however, their absence need not necessarily imply alienation. Seeman (1967) addressed the issue of self estrangement at work by asking whether workers experience variety, creativity, responsibility and autonomy on the job. This operationalization of alienation has a high degree of overlap with work satisfaction (Robinson, Athanasiou, & Head, 1969; Seybolt & Gruenfeld, 1976). Aiken and Hage (1966) measured alienation in their study on the basis of six questions that essentially appear to address work satisfaction. It is interesting that almost all the questions start with ‘How satisfied are you ..’ (p. 501), and then go on to assess various aspects of work. Seybolt and Gruenfeld (1976) call for a refinement of the operationalization of alienation owing to measurement overlap with the concept of satisfaction. Kohn (1976) used a Guttmann scale to measure alienation with subscales for each of the dimensions of powerlessness, self estrangement, normlessness and cultural estrangement. However, the specific questions appear to assess a broader sense of alienation that includes alienation from society or life in general, rather than specifically alienation from work. Similarly, the measures of Korman et al. (1981) and Lang (1985) address both personal and social alienation. Mottaz (1981) measured alienation using seven items each for the dimensions of powerlessness, meaninglessness and self estrangement. He however concluded that powerlessness and meaninglessness are infact determinants of self estrangement. Kanungo (1982) although purports to measure work alienation, confounds alienation with involvement. More recently Hirschfeld and Field (2000) employ a ten item measure of alienation that also contains items measuring meaninglessness.

        Thus, it appears that there is much variability in the literature on how alienation is measured, both in terms of the used scales, as well as to its usage in a narrow or broad sense. Further, in most cases, the scales have not been adequately tested for their psychometric properties. Since the focus of the study is primarily on alienation from work, and there does not appear to be a reliable scale of work alienation from our survey of the literature, we would also be developing and testing a new measure of work alienation as part of the research.

Research Context

         This section will discuss the context of the research in terms of the study of alienation among KWs. Since there is considerable ambiguity in the literature about definitions of knowledge work, a review of the meaning of the term knowledge work/worker is first offered.

Defining Knowledge Work

        Drucker (1973) used the term KW to refer to the next level from manual workers. A similar view is offered by Kelly (1990: 109) who refers to KWs as ‘gold collar’ workers who are hired for their creativity and problem solving skills. Stewart (2001) refers to them as workers ‘who are paid to think’. Alvesson (2001) refers to knowledge work where most of the work is of an intellectual nature and where well educated, qualified employees form the major part of the workforce. For some (Collins, 1997; Davenport, Jarvenpaa, & Beers, 1996; Davenport et al., 2002;) knowledge work is used in a much broader sense to denote work that involves knowledge in any form, so that the creation of knowledge, the application of existing knowledge, packaging or dissemination of knowledge, and the acquisition of existing knowledge through research and learning, are all thought to be forms of knowledge work. Others like Davenport et al. (2002) claim that knowledge work can be laid on a continuum of complexity and difficulty with the upper end of the continuum, in which workers are predominantly engaged in the creation and use of knowledge, referred to as high end KWs. The different meanings of knowledge work have been reviewed by Kelloway & Barling (2000) as (a) a profession (characterized by a certain level of education and professional qualifications) (b) a characteristic of individuals (as those who create intangible value), and (c) as an individual activity (work that involves a high level of cognitive ability).

        According to a classification of labor, Reed (1996) attempts to distinguish between professionals and KWs, separating three classes of expert groups as (a) Independent/liberal professions (e.g. doctors, lawyers, architects) – based on abstract, codified, or rational knowledge base and characterized by a monopolization market strategy with a collegiate organizational form (b) Organizational professionals (e.g. managers, administrators, technicians) – based on a knowledge base that is technical, tacit, local or political, characterized by the power strategy of credentialism with a bureaucratic organizational form, and (c) Knowledge workers (e.g. financial/business consultants, R&D engineers, computer/IT analysts) – based on esoteric, non-substitutable, or analytic knowledge base, characterized by a marketization power strategy and a network organizational form. According to this classification, a distinction is made between KWs and professionals. Thus, KWs are thought to be those who depend on intangible knowledge base and who are less concerned with formal credentialism.     

        It is evident that many KWs no longer belong to the traditional disciplinary professionals. The term KW is therefore used to convey a broader sense than a professional and does not emphasize the strict features ascribed to a typical profession.

Characteristics of Knowledge Work/Worker

        KWs are thought to operate in a constantly changing environment of uncertainty and complexity (Syed, 1998). Expected to be changing jobs frequently they are also known to possess a high disposable income (Alvesson, 2001; Yigitcanlar et al., 2007). Turnover for KWs is thought to be high (Despres & Hiltrop, 1995). Difficulty in ensuring their continued commitment and loyalty to the organization has been noted as a challenge by some authors (Alvesson, 2000; Flood et al., 2001). Further, KWs are known to be autonomous people who exercise occupational mobility and resist command and control culture (Horwitz, Heng & Quazi, 2003). Most authors agree that human capital is the dominant factor in knowledge-intensive firms. Even though there is a fair amount of ambiguity about how to define knowledge work, there is a degree of consensus (Alvesson, 1995; Burton-Jones, 1999; Davenport et al., 2002) that knowledge intensive firms are characterized by non standardized production, are more highly reliant on individuals and their tacit knowledge, and comprise of members with high education levels and high level of codified and tacit knowledge.

Research Gap, Propositions and Proposed Model 

        Based on a review of the literature on work alienation and KWs, two main research gaps appear as (a) the neglect of research on alienation after a point of time (1980’s) in the management literature, and (b) the absence of any research on alienation of the KW. Therefore research on alienation in the context of knowledge work is an identified gap in the literature. KWs because of their tacit knowledge are likely to be attractive to other competing firms. Thus, the knowledge intensive firm faces a constant challenge of keeping their employees engaged, committed and involved in their work. In case a KW does disengage or become alienated, the knowledge intensive firm looses on two counts. An alienated worker would be no good for the organization and when they leave they cause a knowledge void in the organization. Thus, an understanding of factors that might lead to disengagement is important and remains a research gap in the literature.   

Research Objectives

(a)  To examine the extent of experienced alienation among KWs

(b)  To analyze the antecedents and moderators of work alienation among KWs

Propositions and Proposed Model

        Alienation has largely been discussed with respect to the manual worker as most of the research indicates (Blauner, 1964; Dean, 1961; Shepard, 1977). Although there is a dearth of research on alienation of the KW, the proposition that KWs experience alienation may not be all that surprising. Drucker (1969) hinted at it early on and even Blauner (1964) points that education would determine the aspirations sought from work in terms of seeking meaning and satisfaction. Although there is some research on alienation among professionals (Allen & Lafollette, 1977; Chisholm & Cummings, 1979; Korman et al., 1981; Lang, 1985; Organ & Greene, 1981), this has not extended beyond the 1980s and in most cases only considers a narrow range of professions such as scientists and engineers. Given the importance of KWs’ contribution to the performance of organizations (O’Neill & Adya, 2007), we cannot ignore the possibility of alienation experienced by this group. The central premise of the proposed research is that KWs experience work alienation. Their frequent job switching (Davenport et al., 2002; Horwitz et al., 2003; Yigitcanlar et al., 2007) and experienced burnout (Jackson, Schwab & Schuler, 1986) are only indicators of the underlying phenomenon of work alienation.

Hypothesis 1: KWs experience work alienation

        In trying to understand what causes alienation, various aspects of work environment, such as centralization, formalization, lack of control, education, age, locus of control, etc., have been explored in the literature. However, this research is fragmented and a comprehensive model capable of explaining work alienation is still missing.

        Both centralization and formalization have been linked to greater work alienation (Aiken & Hage, 1966; Allen & Lafollette, 1977) among manual workers. However, the results for formalization are mixed for professionals (Allen & Lafollette, 1977; Greene, 1978; Organ & Greene, 1981; Podsakoff, et al., 1986), as pointed out earlier. Research on KWs suggest that they thrive in an environment of less structure (Davenport et al., 2002). Given the ambiguity in the literature on the role of formalization on alienation for professionals, it may be proposed that for KWs, formalization may appear as exertion of control and that could lead to work alienation. Hence it is proposed:

                                                                                                                         

Hypothesis 2: Increase in structure (both formalization and centralization) will lead to alienation among KWs

        According to the self determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000), the need for autonomy is one of the basic needs that is essential for facilitating optimal functioning and personal well being. Blauner (1964) was able to show that repetitive routine tasks that grant less autonomy lead to alienation. Quintanilla and Wilpert (1991) in examining changing work meanings, report increasing autonomy for the worker with rise in education levels. It has been noted that KWs are known to resist command and control style of working and seek autonomy in their work (Davenport et al., 2002; Horwitz et al., 2003).

 Other characteristics of the work, such as challenge and stimulation have also been pointed out to be of value to professionals (Fineman, 1983). Research on the manual worker (Blauner, 1964) has shown that repetitive tasks that grant less variety are associated with greater alienation. This is likely to hold true for KWs as well. Drucker (1999) also argues that creativity has to be part of the work of KWs. The failure to view ones job as a significant contribution to the work process, referred to as meaninglessness, has been considered as a determinant of work alienation by Mottaz (1981). Parker (1983) argues that work meanings differ according to the class of work, with low skilled workers primarily seeking monetary compensation from work, and professionals seeking work that grants them a means of self expression. High education of the KW has also been associated with increased expectations from work (Rosner & Putterman, 1991) which could be indicative of a desire for greater meaning from work. It is therefore proposed that lack of autonomy, absence of variety, challenge and creativity, and work that is not inherently meaningful and that which does not allow for self expression, are work characteristics that are likely to predict alienation of the KW.

Hypothesis 3a: Work that allows limited autonomy will lead to work alienation among KWs

Hypothesis 3b: The absence of variety, challenge or creativity in work will lead to work alienation among KWs

Hypothesis 3c: When the work itself is not perceived as meaningful it will lead to work alienation among KWs

Hypothesis 3d: When work does not allow for self expression it will lead to work alienation among KWs

        Superior subordinate relationship is thought to be essential to the role of task accomplishment (Lee & Jablin, 1995). Attributional conflict between leader and subordinate has been shown to relate to subordinate turnover intentions (Wilhelm, Herd & Steiner, 1993). Therefore it is hypothesized that poor superior subordinate relations could also be a factor in the experience of alienation. In addition to relations with the supervisor, an individual also has relations with others in the organization such as peers, subordinates, clients, etc. The perceived lack of having satisfied needs for interpersonal satisfaction has been referred to as loss of affiliative satisfaction (Korman et al., 1981) which has been related to alienation among professional managers (Korman et al., 1981). Thus, it is hypothesized that poor work relations including those with superiors would be a factor in the experience of work alienation among KWs.

Hypothesis 4a: Poor superior subordinate relationships will lead to work alienation among KWs

Hypothesis 4b: Poor work relationships in general will lead to work alienation among KWs     

Perceptions of procedural and distributive justice have been related with many employee attitudes such as satisfaction and intention to turnover (Gilliland & Chan, 2001). The two factor construct of organizational justice as procedural and distributive justice has received consistent support in the literature (Gilliland & Chan, 2001; Greenberg, 1990; Sweeney & McFarlin, 1993). There is evidence that perceptions of poor organizational justice can lead to organizational retaliatory behavior or aggression (Skarlicki & Folger, 1997; Colbert, Mount, Harter, Witt & Barrick, 2004); such behaviors can also be considered as outcomes of work alienation (Fried et al., 1982; Jermier, 1988). It is therefore proposed that perceptions of organizational injustice would predict work alienation.

Hypothesis 5a: Perceptions of low distributive justice will lead to work alienation among KWs

Hypothesis 5b: Perceptions of low procedural justice will lead to work alienation among KWs

        The MOW (Meaning of Working) research, a cross national research carried out across 8 industrialized countries through 1978-1984 to investigate the meaning of work across cultures, conceptualized work centrality as ‘the degree of general importance that working has in the life of an individual at any given point of time’ (MOW International Research Team, 1987: 81). It has been discussed in the literature as central life interest (Dubin, 1956; Dubin, Champoux & Porter, 1975) or in terms of the protestant work ethic (Buchholz, 1978). Broadly speaking, work centrality refers to the importance of working in ones life. The relation between work centrality and work alienation has been touched upon by Watson (2003: 177) when he points that people can only be alienated from work when there is an emphasis on the work ethic. In the absence of any empirical research on the relation between work centrality and alienation, work centrality is posed here as a moderator of the relationship between the antecedent conditions and work alienation. A moderator variable is one that affects the direction and/or strength between the predictor variable and dependant variable (Baron & Kenny, 1986) so that the impact of the predictor on the dependant or criterion variable varies according to the level or value of the moderator (Holmbeck, 1997). Thus, it is expected that when work centrality is high the relation between the predictor variables and work alienation will be stronger than when work centrality is low, even when the rest of the work context remains the same.

        Unmet expectations from work or expectancy disconfirmation will also be considered as a moderator of the relationship between the antecedent variables and work alienation. Unmet needs or aspirations sought from work have been related to alienation as suggested by some (Blauner, 1964; Finifter, 1972; Kanungo, 1979). Expectancy disconfirmation was found to be positively related to alienation by Korman et al. (1981). However, Lang (1985) found that disconfirmed expectations did not contribute significantly to the prediction of alienation. It is proposed here, that disconfirmed or unmet expectations will act as a moderator in the relationship between the predictor variables and work alienation, so that other things remaining constant, an individual who experiences disconfirmation of expectancies is more likely to experience work alienation than one whose expectations from work are met.

Hypothesis 6a: The tendency to experience work alienation will be higher for those with higher work centrality and lower for those with lower work centrality even when the context of work remains constant. 

Hypothesis 6b: The tendency to experience work alienation will be higher for those who experience disconfirmation of expectations and lower for those whose expectations are met even when the context of work remains constant. 

        The combined model of work alienation for KWs in relation to the predictor and moderator variables is shown in Figure 7. The demographic variables of age, gender and education will be used as control variables. However, the variables of gender and age will also be explored for their moderating effect, considering that men and women are likely to differ in their experience of alienation as would KWs across different age groups.

Figure 7: Model of work alienation in terms of predictor and moderator variables

Research Design

Methodology

        The proposed methodology will be quantitative analysis, using questionnaire data based on survey design. Since the primary research question is whether KWs experience alienation and if so the factors contributing towards it, analysis of survey questionnaires is expected to point towards the factors as well as examine the role of the moderator variables. Self report data will be used for the research.

Sampling

Proposed Sample

        Respondents will be drawn from a cross section of different knowledge industries in the IT sector based on purposive sampling. Our sample of KWs is intended to be representative of a group as distinguished from the manual worker characterized by tacit knowledge and high education and income levels as per Drucker’s (1973) definition.

Proposed Sample Size

        In offering a review of scale development practices in organizational studies, Hinkin (1995: 973) notes that item-to-response ratios generally range from 1:4 to 1:10 in the literature. It is therefore proposed to adopt a 1:6 item-to-response ratio. With around 70 items in the questionnaire, the sample size would then be around 420. Considering a modest response rate it is proposed to target around 600-700 respondents in all.

Measures

        There is considerable variability in how alienation has been measured in previous research (Aiken & Hage, 1966; Blauner, 1964; Hirschfeld & Feild, 2000; Kohn, 1976; Lang, 1985; Mottaz, 1981; Seeman, 1967). Added to this is the limited number of measures specifically addressing work alienation. Considering the ambiguity in measurement of alienation and the absence of a validated scale, a new measure of alienation is being developed for this study. The other measures that are being developed for this study, because of inadequate conceptualization or measurement in literature, include those for meaningfulness, quality of relationships, self expression in work and a discrepancy measure for expectations from various aspects of work and fulfillment in them. The new measures developed for this study will first be pilot tested for establishing their psychometric properties. Details of the various measures that will be used in this study are shown in Table 2.

Table 2: Measures for the different variables to be used in the study

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Appendix A

The Different Dimensions of Alienation

Powerlessness: This refers to the classical view of alienation as also discussed by Marx. It represents the condition of the worker in capitalist society where the worker lacks control over his work. Seeman (1959: 786) defined it as ‘the expectancy or probability held by the individual that his own behavior cannot determine the occurrence of the outcomes, or reinforcements, he seeks’. This definition slightly departs from the Marxian view in that it is not merely an objective fact caused by the organization of work, but shifts the focus to the perception or experience of it. The powerlessness version of alienation is also the most studied (Seeman, 1975). Shepard (1977) described powerlessness as ‘the perceived lack of freedom and control on the job’ (p 13-14). According to Blauner (1964), the four modes of industrial powerlessness are due to (a) separation of ownership of the means of production and the finished product (b) inability to influence general managerial policies (c) lack of control over the conditions of employment and (d) lack of control over the immediate work process.

Meaninglessness: Seeman (1959: 786) describes it as ‘when the individual is unclear as to what he ought to believe - when the individuals’ minimal standards for clarity in decision making are not met’. This has been interpreted as existing when worker contributes only minutely to the total product (Shepard, 1977) or is not able to see the relation of his or her work to the larger system of work (Blauner, 1964; Kanungo, 1979). Blauner (1964) found this condition to exist when individual roles lack organic connection to the whole, further intensified by bureaucratic structures. He associated meaninglessness in work with the product, process and organization of work emerging from both the standardization of production and the division of labor.

Normlessness: This is derived from Durkheim’s (1947, trans.) concept of anomie, used to denote the social situation in which social norms regulating individual conduct have broken down or are no longer effective (Dean, 1961). Anomie has been discussed as a subjective sense, having characteristics of uneasiness or anxiety, feeling of separation from the group standards and feeling of pointlessness or that no certain goals exist. It has been defined by Seeman (1959: 788) as ‘high expectancy that socially unapproved behaviors are required to achieve given goals’.

Isolation: This variant of alienation is thought to be linked to people ‘who assign low reward value to goals or beliefs that are typically highly valued in the given society’ (Seeman, 1959: 789).  It refers to the individuals’ rejection of commonly held values in society or group. Dean (1961: 755) refers to social isolation as ‘a feeling of separation from the group or of isolation from group standards’. Blauner (1964) combines both normlessness and isolation to refer to it as ‘social alienation’ resulting from an absence of integration in the work society.

Self Estrangement: This form of alienation is thought to refer to the state where the person experiences himself as alien or becomes estranged from the self. As described by Seeman (1959: 790), ‘to be self alienated, means to be something less than one might ideally be’. In other words this form of alienation is related to the condition when one is engaged in work that is not rewarding in itself.  Shepard (1977) discusses this as the condition when workers view work as a means to some other end instead of a means of personal self fulfillment. Blauner (1964: 26) proposes that jobs that do not provide opportunities for expressing ‘unique abilities, potentialities or personality of the worker’ encourage self estrangement. According to Blauner a worker is self estranged from his/her inner self at work if the worker is unable to express self through it and views work only in instrumental