extend

extend

verb [T] (OFFER) 

提供

     /ɪkˈstend/ slightly formal

› to offer or give

提供；給予

I should like to extend my thanks to you for your kindness.

對您的好意我謹致以衷心感謝。

The chairperson extended a warm welcome to the guest speaker.

主席向特別邀請的演講者表示熱烈歡迎。

The government is extending (= giving) aid to people who have beenaffected by the earthquake.

政府正在為地震受災居民提供援助。

[+ two objects] The bank has agreed to extend us money/extendmoney to us (= lend us money) to buy our house.

銀行已經同意提供我們購屋的貸款。

Ing clauses or gerunds

Objects> Direct objects> experiencer DO

Direct objects can be experiencers as well if the verb causes the DO to achieve a new pyschological state.

Dad calmed the baby.
Lester frightened me.
That novel bothered my students. 

In a sense an experiencer is a subcategory of patient in that the DO is affected by the action of the verb in a very particular way.

Objects> Direct objects> patient DO

Patients are always affected by the action of the verb (to a greater of lesser degree).

Jill smashed my car.
Dorothy threw her coat on the floor.
Timothy folded the clothes.
The plaintiff destroyed the evidence.

Subjects> empty it

Whenever a pronoun refers back to an item that has already been introduced into the discourse, the pronoun is making anaphoric reference.

There are, however, contexts in which it does not have anaphoric reference.

It is hot!
It's foggy in Seattle. 

Except for the imperative construction, English sentences demand subjects and it is acceptably neutral in those cases where there is not a semantically meaningful subject.

Described and located subjects

Some subjects are simply being charaterised or described by the informatoin in the predicate. These subjects always cooccur with copulas, verbs that have little independent meaning but related the information in the predicate back to the subject.

Michael is tall

Marty seems pleasant.

Samson is in his doghouse. 

Tomi is on the porch.

experiencer subjects

Experiencer subjects are always animate, usually human. An experiencer experiences a sensory perception or a psychological state.

sensory verb with agent subject>>John looked at the scar./ Maria smelled the tulips. 

sensory verb with experiencer subject>>John saw some blood. / Maris smelled smoke. 

Sometimes the semantic difference between an experiencer subject and an agent subject is reflected in the verb and sometimes it is not. In the case of look at versus see and listen to versus hear, this semantic difference is lexicalized; in other words, the difference in meaning is signaled by different words. In the case of agnetive smell and experiencer smell, the semantic difference is not lexicalized; the verbs take the same form.

instrument subjects

An instrumental subjects, as the label implies, is an inanimate entity which acts on someone or something else because it is being used as an instrument.

The key opened the safe. 

causer subjects

A causer is either an animate being who acts without volition or an inanimate entity.

If Rob tripped Roy just to see Roy fall, Rob is an agent, but if Rob tripped Roy accidentally, then Rob is a causer.

It is not always easy to tell whether an animate subject is an agent or a causer Out of context, we don't know whether the following subjects are acting deliberately or not.

Butch disgusts everyone. 
The child amused the adults. 

agent subjects

The agent subject is the classic doer of the action. An agent subject is an animate being that acts deliberately, with intent. Most speakers consider the agent the most typical subject.

Agent subjects can co-occur with either transitive verbs:

Catherine's boss fired her.
Fred threw the frisbee.
Joan built a birdhouse.

or intransitive verb:

The little boy yelled.
Those kids are whispering.
My niece smiled.

patient subjects and intransitive verbs

Patient subjects occur only in intransitive or passive constructions:

The house collapsed.
My garden froze.
His hair darkened.
The clothes hung on the line.
The ball bounced (彈起).
The book lay on the table.
The door opened. 
The vase broke. 

The book lay on the table.

The traditional semantic label for an affected subject or an affected DO is patient. (This label derives from the adjective patient which historically described one who "bears or endures".)

Most patient subjects co-occur with verbs that describe a change of state--The water boiled; The chair broke; The water heater exploded; Rosa fell; The mirror shattered. 

Cataphoric it (後指It )

When a complex clause functions as the semantic subject of a sentence, a speaker will often put that clause at the end of the sentence and replace it with the pronoun it. In this case it is not semantically empty; its semantic content is the subsequent clause.

That my daughter had lied bothered me. / It bothered me that my daughter had lied.

I climbed Mt. Everest

The difference between locative DO and prepositional phrases:

I climbed Mt. Everest. (DO)
I climbed up Mt. Everest. (adverb>adjunct of direction)

What makes locative DO interesting is that they express a quality of completeness which is lacking in the prepositional phrases.

infinitive subject clause

An infinitive subject clause can itself have an overt or covert subject.

Covert subject in clause

TO have this kind of house takes money.

To have stolen that software was dumb.

Overt subject in clause

For Ken to win would be wonderful.

For her to have said that was inexcusable.

Direct object vs verb complement

The teacher persuaded Sarah to join us.

How do we know that Sarah rather than the entire clause, is the DO of persuade?

One piece of evidence lies in the passive; note that I can make Sarah the subject of a passive with persuade--Sarah was persuaded by the teacher to join us. This operation is impossible when the main verb is want--Sarah was wanted by the teacher to join us.

infinitive clause predicate nominatives

Covert subject in clause

My dream was to become a dentist. 

Stuart's fantasy was to climb Denali. 

Overt subject in clause

David's plan is for JIll to give Ann the information. 

The best idea would be for her to tell the truth. 

subject controlled eqi

The term equi is used to characterise any construction in which an overt NP in one clause and a covert NP in another is identical. In Stephanie wants to be a firefighter, the equi is subject controlled; this means that the content of the lower, covert subject is determined by the content of the higher subject.  

[Stephanie wants] [Stephanie] to be [a firefighter]

should you need any assistance

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Your reply will be greatly appreciated.

Your reply will be greatly appreciated.

All help was greatly appreciated

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Your kind assistance in this matter would be greatly appreciated.

Your kind assistance in this matter would be greatly appreciated.

*Suan made that she didn't like me clear

When a sentence includes an object complement, the DO that clause must be extraposed.

A sentence like Susan make her position clear is perfectly acceptable, but *Suan made that she didn't like me clear is ungrammatical. Extraposing the DO restores grammaticality--Susan made it clear that she didn't like me.

It seems that Donna has quit her job.

The sentence reflects extraposition, despite the fact that the non-extraposed versions are ungrammatical--* That Donna has quit her job seems.

It appears that the Dean is angry >>That the Dean is angry appears.

infinitive clauses

William wants to go to Morocco. 

Stephanie wants [Stephanie] to be a firefighter.

>>The term equi is used to characterise any construction in which an overt NP in once clause and a covert NP in another clause are identical.

>>In Stephanie wants to be a firefighter, the equi is subject controlled; this means that the content of the lower, covert subject is determined by the content of the higher subject.  


Stephanie wants her son to be a firefighter. 

>>If the subject of the infinitive clause is different from that of the higher verb, the subject must be explicitly stated.

extraposition of subjects

Actually, English speakers don't often place that clauses in subject position even though such sentences are entirely grammatical More often we move such clausal subjects to the end of the sentence replacing them with the pronoun it. 

This process is called extraposition. 

Normally, it has anaphoric reference, i.e. it refers to an entity that has already been introduced into the discourse Here, however, it has cataphoric reference; its referent is a clause that appears later in the utterance.

It was astonishing that the burglary had not been discovered. 

that clauses as subjects

That Habiba had earned that scholarship pleased everybody.

That clauses subjects co-occur with a very limited number of verbs. Most stative copulas can take that clauses subjects and so can verbs that suggest emotional states or personal reactions.

...seemed

....bothers ...

..thrilled. ..

definition

Infinitives, as the name suggests, are not finite; they do not carry tense. Since modal auxiliaries always occur first in VP and since modals have no infinitive forms, modals never appear in infinitives clauses.

that clauses as predicate nominatives

My concern is that he'll never learn responsibility.

The subject of such sentences always contain noun heads like plan, idea, notion, belief, hope, etc. The copula is almost always be.

that clauses and ditransitive verbs

We told Alice that Karl had wrecked her truck.

The indirect object must precede the DO construction.

*We told that Karl had wrecked her truck to Alice is impossible.

that clause as Direct Object

The coach thinks that Sammy is an excellent athlete.

-psych verbs: know believe, hope , wish, assume, guess,
-sensory verbs: hear, see, feel
-communicate: say, argue, note, insist, demand, agree, suggest, indicate, write

Note that there are a few words that can take clausal DO but cannot take simple NPs or pronouns. *I insisted it is ungrammatical.

He lied naked.

"Naked" modifies the subject by indicating what state it is in .

adjecitive adjunct 在流行曲的例子

I'm torn
I'm all out of faith
This is how I feel
I'm cold and I am chained
Lying naked on the floor
Illusion never changed 
Into something real
I'm wide awake 
And I can see the perfect sky is torn
You're a little late
I'm already torn

torn

I would appreciate if you could

I would appreciate if you could 



I would appreciate if you could let me have the said information (in both Chinese and English and with soft copy to Miss Joey LEE at jmylee@legco.gov.hk) by 16 June 2009. 


煩請於2009年 6 月 16日或該日前向本人提供上述資料( 兼 具中、英文本及電子複本，發送電郵至：jmylee@legco.gov.hk，李美 儀小姐收)。  

pending (preposition)

used to say that one thing must wait until another thing happens

等到…之後；直到…時為止

The identity of the four people was not made public , pending (the)notification of relatives .

四名受害者的身分要等到家屬確認之後才能公開。

Flights were suspended pending (an) investigation of the crash .

墜機事故正待調查，航班暫時取消。

I hope you will find it helpful.

I hope you will find it helpful.

That clauses as verb complements

Joanie warned Henry that she was an expert pool player. 

Henry is the direct object.

The clause is required for discourse coherence.

Unlike the ditransitive communication verb to tell, verbs that take clausal complements are more or less deontic; they always express the fat that the subject has affected or is attempting to affect the behavior of the direct object in some way.

convinced sb that ...

assured sb that...

advised sb that...

cautioned sb that ......

persuaded sb that .......

warned sb that ......

ellipsis -So

In general the term ellipsis refers to any omission of a word or words.

Linguistic ellipsis occurs when material is omitted from a construction but can be recovered by looking at the previous linguistic context.

So replaces missing elements of the predicate but it functions in two distinct ways.

If often behaves very much like too, replacing everything after the operator, although so also forces subject/operator inversion in the second predicate---Iris can program computers and so can Fanny. 

So can also replace a clausal direct object construction. In I hate Pam's boyfriend and I told her so, so stands for the entire proposition "I hate Pam's boyfriend," i.e., I hate Pam's boyfriend and I told her [that I hate her boyfriend].

I would appreciate a reply as soon as possible.

I would appreciate a reply as soon as possible. 

make the necessary arrangement

make the necessary arrangement

as a rule - 作為一項規則

as a rule - 作為一項規則

in detail

in detail› including or considering all the information about something or every part of something

詳細地，詳盡地

We haven't discussed the matter in detail yet .

我們還沒有詳細討論此事。

The book described her sufferings in graphic detail.

這本書詳盡地描述了她所遭受的種種痛苦。

He talked in great detail about the curtains he's chosen for his lounge.

他詳細介紹了他為客廳選定的窗簾。

but

But is normally categorised as a conjunction, but it behaves quite differently from and and or.

But is highly constrained in the kinds of structures it can coordinate. It does not conjoin nouns or noun phrases, one of the most common functions of the other two conjunctions; it occasionally conjoins modal auxiliaries---she can but won't help me; it sometimes conjoins adjectives---They are poor but happy. Most often but conjoins predicates and independent clauses.


I like Meg but I can't stand her brother.

transitional conjuncts

Transitional conjuncts are used when a speaker wants to change the subject.

By the way, have you seen Sylvia's new baby?

Incidentally, I won't be able to come to the wedding.

Oh, did you remember to take out the garbage?

Adding and reinforcing conjuncts

...add material to the discourse and often reinforce what has been said before.

Furthermore, ...

On top of it,...

What is more,..

adverbs of means

Adverbs of means indicate by what means or method an action is carried out.


He armadillo was hit by a bus.

Ben was fired by his boss.

The dog was frightened by the thunder.

He flew Air France.

altogether

altogether

completely or in total
完全，全然；總共，一共

That'll be £52.50 altogether, please .
一共是52.5英鎊。

The government ought to abolish the tax altogether.
政府應該徹底取消這一稅收。

She wrote less and less often, and eventually she stopped altogether.
她動筆的次數越來越少，最後完全停筆了。

It's all right working with him, but living with him would be a different matter altogether.
跟他一起工作還可以，但跟他一起生活可完全是另外一回事。

I'm not altogether sure I want that (= I have doubts about it).
我不能完全肯定我想要那個。

He's bad-tempered , selfish and altogether (= including everything) an unpleasant man.
他脾氣暴躁，自私自利，總之很令人討厭。

I think Graham will agree , but convincing Mary will be altogether more(= much more) difficult .
我覺得格雷厄姆會同意，但要說服瑪麗就肯定難多了。

epistemic disjuncts

They are usually, but not always, sentence initial.

Maybe Alicia will arrive on time.

Perhaps it won't rain tomorrow.

Surely, she won't reveal your secret.

Professor Lee will undoubtedly be angry.

Supposedly, my sister has a great new job.

given

 knowing about or considering a particular thing

考慮到；鑒於

Given his age , he's a remarkably fast runner .

考慮到他的年齡，他可稱得上是個很出眾的賽跑運動員了。

Given (the fact ) that he's had six months to do this, he hasn't made much progress .

鑒於他有六個月時間去完成該工作，所以現在依然進展不大。

point of view disjuncts

Ethnically, New York is a very diverse city.

Geographically, the Falklands are somewhat isolated.

The government is corrupt morally.

style disjuncts

When a speaker exploits a style adverb, s/he is indicating in what mode the sentence is being uttered, i.e., the speaker is being frank, truthful, honest, etc.

Confidentially, I can't stand my boss.
I honestly can't help you.
Seriously, don't tell anyone.

Note that if it is put at the end of the sentence, it may become an adverb of manner.

I didn't speak to him honestly./ Honestly, I don't speak to him.

attitude disjuncts

English speakers can use an adverb to express an attitude toward the proposition contained in the sentence. In an utterance like Foolishly, Joan quit school , the proposition is Joan quit school while foolishly is an editorial comment made by the speaker.

   Luckily, they were saved by a hiker.

   Incredibly, he passed the bar examination.

   Amazingly, Maria married Arnold.

   The storm did little change, surprisingly.

Attitude disjuncts can be post-modified, usually by enough- Oddly enough, she didn't mind; Strangely enough, Janice stayed. Occasionally they can be negated--Not surprisingly, she caught cold.

denominal adjectives

a paper airplane

the senior trip

apple cider

the country jail

a stone wall

These are called denominal adjectives. THe term denominal indicates that a word has lost its nominal status; it can be used to refer to any noun form that takes on a non-nominal grammatical function.

adjunct adjectives (quite difficult )

Charley sleeps nude.

Mary arrived drunk.

They emerged form the building alive.

Cassie walked into the room mad.

Each adjective modifies the subject by indicating what state it is in.

The river froze solid.

The box broke open.

A door slammed shut.

Each adjective modifies the subject by specifying a resultant state.

They are called adjunct adjectives because the adjective is an optional construction.

Also,

Pandora broke the box open.

Cyril tied the rope tighter.

The cook wiped the counter clean.

The agents shot the kidnapper dead.

Some grammarians call these adjectives adjuncts rather than object complements because they are not required for grammaticality.

Also,

Justin cried himself sick.

Minnie drank herself unconscious. 

Trudy talked herself hoarse.

the unread manuscript; an unsold car, an unsung hero.

There are a number of past participles that can function as adjectives only when they contain the prefix  (un-) --the unread manuscript; an unsold car, an unsung hero. Without the prefix, none of these pp can modify nouns unless the pp itself is modified in some way---a seldom read manuscript, an easily sold product.

modify adjectives

The sweetly smiling child kicked me.

THe recently discovered galaxy was full of stars.

*The newly married couple left for Trinidad.

My often abused transmission finally blew up.

*This is a rarely seen species.

*Some participial prenominal adjectives can appear only when accompanied by modifiers. (x This is a seen species.)

THe stacking and coordination of adjuncts

As a rule, only adjuncts from the same semantic category can be coordinated with and ----Mary Anne walked over the bridge and through the woods. He danced gracefully and with great feeling.

Any number of adjuncts from different categories can be stacked up without coordination---Mary Anne walked to the park at noon. He danced gracefully without the floor. 

with her friends

Signe played with her friends.

I walked with my mother.

direction and result

A prepositional phrase is locative but at the same time expresses a strong result---

eg. 

The audience booed the actors off the stage.

She laughed him out of the room..

to death

The jailers starved their prisoner to death.

Their taunting 嘲弄 drove the child to tears.

The little girl cried herself to sleep.

for the race

He did it for love.

We ran for cover.

due to....

pseudo-passives

Cotton washes well.

These shirts iron easily.

Tangerines peel nicely.

*Almost all pseudo-passives contain adverbs of manner and they often depend on these adverbs for grammaticality.

like, with, noun phrase as adverbs of manner

SHe skies like a professional.

THey danced with grace.

The Girl Scouts walked single file.

Lourdes cooks beans Cuban-style.