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Write a close critical analysis of Coleridge's 'Frost at Midnight' in order to examine the extent to which the poem explores and embodies具體表現；體現 some of the key concerns of Romanticism.'

'Frost at Midnight' is generally regarded as the greatest of Samuel Taylor Coleridge's 'Conversation Poems' and is said to have influenced Wordsworth's pivotal 關鍵性的work, 'Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey'. It is therefore apposite 恰當的to analyse 'Frost at Midnight' with a view to revealing how the key concerns of Romanticism were communicated through the poem.

The Romantic period in English literature ran from around 1785, following the death of the eminent neo-classical writer Samuel Johnson, to the ascension of Queen Victoria to the throne in 1837. However, in the years spanning this period writers were not identified as exponents of a recognised literary movement. It was only later that literary historians created and applied the term 'Romanticism'. Since then, a further distinction has been made between first and second generation Romantic writers. But even within these sub-divisions there exist points of divergence. As first generation Romantics, Coleridge and Wordsworth enjoyed an intimate friendship and collaborated to produce the seminal Romantic work, Lyrical Ballads (1798). But in his Biographia Literaria (1817) Coleridge cast a critical eye over the 'Preface to the Lyrical Ballads' (1800) and took issue with much of Wordsworth's poetical theory. Such discrepancies frustrate attempts to classify Romanticism as a monolithic大一統的 movement and make establishing a workable set of key concerns problematic.

In his introduction to the Norton Anthology of English Literature M. H. Abrams attempts to overcome these difficulties by identifying the 'five cardinal of ​great ​importance:elements' of Romantic poetry. According to Abrams, Romantic poetry is distinguished by the belief that poetry is not an "imitation of nature" but a "representation of the poet's internal emotions". (1)Secondly, that the writing of poetry should be "an effortless expression" and not an "arduous exercise". (2)The prevalence of nature in Romantic poetry (3) and what Abrams calls "the glorification of the ordinary and the outcast"(4) are identified as two further common elements, as is the sense of a "supernatural" or "satanic presence"(5) (Abrams, 2000, pp. 7-11). It is with regard to this elemental understanding of Romantic poetry that I will conduct my close critical analysis of 'Frost at Midnight' to examine the extent to which the poem embodies and explores the key concerns of Romanticism.

'Frost at Midnight' is a poem written without calculated adherence to established poetic conventions. Comprising four stanzas of varying length, it is written in blank verse and adopts a conversational tone. The flexibility of the meter complements the spontaneous, impulsive nature of a poem containing both personal reflection and joyous visions, and further illustrates Abrams's claim that Romantic poetry should be an 'effortless expression' rather than an 'arduous 艱巨的exercise'.(2) As an account of the speaker's present, past, and future circumstances, George Dekker has argued that the poem utilises a typically Romantic structure:

The persona digresses from a carefully established scene to a former time and contrasting situation, then back to the present before moving into the future vision of prayer. (Dekker, 1978, p. 235)

By its use of such a structure 'Frost at Midnight' also illustrates Abrams's observation that Romantic poetry should be less an 'imitation of nature' than a 'representation of the poet's internal emotions'. (1)Contrary to the neo-classical emphasis on observation and objective knowledge, the speaker of 'Frost at Midnight' uses nature as the stimulus to turn inward. His perceptions transport him on a journey through memory and imagination and ultimately to a moment of personal insight. In 'Frost at Midnight', Coleridge highlights 強調the Romantic conviction that the poet's role is not to hold a mirror up to nature but to use the fountains of memories and feelings which nature evokes to create something valuable and uniquely individual.

The personification of natural phenomena is pervasive 充斥各處的；瀰漫的，遍佈的throughout Romantic poetry.(3) In the opening line of the poem the speaker personifies the frost by imbuing it with 使…充滿…；將…灌輸給…intention: "The Frost performs its secret ministry" (Wolfson and Manning, 2003, pp. 562-63, line 1). Later in the poem, he personifies a film of soot flapping on the grate of the fire:

Methinks, its motion in the hush of natureGives it dim sympathies with me who lives,Making it a companionable form (lines 17-19).

Such instances are effective in illustrating the Romantic precept （尤指道德方面的）戒律，規矩，準則that the seemingly familiar or innocuous 無害的aspects of nature can still fill the viewer with awe – an example of the ‘glorification of the normal’ as described by Abrams.(4) Coleridge is informed  (formal) to have an influence on somethingby a distinctly Romantic sensibility, one which takes issue with Samuel Johnson's assertion 斷言；明確肯定that "all wonder is the effect of novelty upon ignorance" (Abrams, 2000, p. 11). Instead, Coleridge's speaker meditates with wonder upon such an ordinary thing as soot. As he does so he transforms the film into a friend and liberates the focus of the poem from the immediate confines of the cottage to the more promising realm of memory and imagination.

The speaker of 'Frost at Midnight' displays a characteristic reverence 尊敬；崇敬for nature – possibly the essential concern of Romanticism. In pious 虔誠的tones, he describes the "far other scenes" where his son will pass his boyhood "By lakes and sandy shores, beneath the crags/ Of ancient mountain" (lines 55-56). But it is not simply by the use of such grandiose 誇大的，不切實際的；華而不實的language describing the topography 地形；地貌；地勢of nature that nature is represented in the poem. By recalling his own upbringing in the city, the speaker further juxtaposes this reverent portrait of nature with the desolate urbanity of the city:

                           For I was rearedIn the great city, pent 'mid cloisters dim,And saw naught lovely but the sky and stars,But thou, my babe! shalt wander like a breezeBy lakes and sandy shores (lines 51-55)

Coleridge's word choice here is significant. By juxtaposing the confines of the 'dim cloisters' of the city with a description of his son 'wandering like a breeze' the sense of freedom and light which nature brings to human experience is brought into sharper contrast.

The speaker's vision of his son's upbringing is further significant in highlighting the Romantic preference for intellectual stimulation and development through a study of nature rather than a 'conventional' education. The child will learn "far other lore" in these "far other scenes" (lines 50-51); he will see and hear

The lovely shapes and sounds intelligibleOf that eternal language, which thy GodUtters, who from all eternity doth teachHimself in all, and all things in himself.Great universal Teacher! he shall mouldThy spirit, and by giving make it ask. (lines 59 - 64)

Coleridge believed that both nature and human beings partook of 吃，喝
Would you care to partake of a little wine with us? 你願意和我們一起喝點酒嗎？a divine element and that a reverent appreciation of nature would nourish an intelligent and inquisitive mind. The belief that an open appreciation for the divine in nature is the greatest of educations is also one of the main themes of Wordsworth's 'The Tables Turned':

Come forth into the light of things,Let Nature be your teacher...One impulse from vernal woodMay teach you more of man,Of moral evil and of good,Than all the sages can.(Abrams 2000, p. 228, lines 15-16, 21-24)

This concern with nature as a divine education finds some correspondence 相稱；相類似；相當in Abrams's claim that Romantic poetry is distinguished by a 'sense of the supernatural'. (5) However, it has been more clearly described by Aidan Day in his book Romanticism:

The mind possesses a faculty which enables it to see through the forms of the material world to a greater, spiritual reality behind it. (Day, 1996, p. 57)

Day's explanation highlights the way in which 'Frost at Midnight' embodies and explores not just the literary principles of Romanticism but also its wider philosophy. J. P. Mileur writes in his study Coleridge's Art of Immanence that one of the key characteristics of Coleridge's philosophy is the idea "that we receive from Nature what be bestow" (Mileur 1982, p. 52). Although nature is the teacher, it is important to acknowledge that the conclusion to the poem describes a process of education in which the mind plays an active role. The 'Great Universal teacher' moulds the human spirit by giving it the ability to ask its own questions. By celebrating the potential of the human mind, 'Frost at Midnight' embodies a distinctly Romantic epistemology. It takes issue with the Enlightenment belief that reliable knowledge can only be accumulated through a process of passive observation and reflection upon the sensory world. By the end of the poem the speaker has emerged from his reveries a 'happier and wiser man'. Having imaginatively transformed his world the speaker takes comfort from the confident belief that his son too will be able to teach himself by actively interrogating the natural world.

In conclusion, 'Frost at Midnight' may be said to embody and explore the key concerns of Romanticism insofar as ［to the ​degree that］it displays those cardinal elements provided by Abrams. As a series of meditations written in blank verse with varying stanza length the poem creates the impression of being an 'effortless expression of the poet's emotions'. The multiple instances of personification serve to 'glorify the ordinary'. As Wordsworth declared in the 'Preface to the Lyrical Ballads', the new poetry should "throw over" familiar objects "a certain colouring of the imagination, whereby ordinary things are presented to the mind in an unusual way" (Wolfson and Manning, 2003, p. 356). 

Finally, in the course of contrasting his own childhood with the upbringing he imagines for his child, the speaker makes a typically Romantic connection between the natural and the supernatural worlds. This is perhaps the key concern of the poem as it is explored and related to the Romantic belief that nature is the best teacher. On this point Abrams's elemental understanding of Romantic poetry seems insufficient. However, this is perhaps significant in highlighting the difficulties involved in defining Romanticism as a coherent literary movement.

Brian Hamill

Bibliography

Abrams, M. & Greenblatt, S. 2000. The Norton Anthology of English Literature 7th ed. Vol. 2. London: Norton.

Day, A. 1996. Romanticism. London: Routledge.

Dekker, G.1978. Coleridge and the Literature of Sensibility. London: Vision Press.

Mileur, J. 1982. Coleridge and the Art of Immanence. Los Angeles: University of California Press.

Wolfson, S. & Manning, P. 2003. The Longman Anthology of English Literature Vol 2: The Romantics and their Contemporaries. London: Longman. 

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